Hong Kong Intelligence Report #172 繁體字也是某個歷史時期的簡體字：論簡體字與繁體字的辯證法

Open-source intelligence (OSINT)

🔻 IMPORTANT 【重要】繁體字也是某個歷史時期的簡體字

▪️我的結論：繁體字也是某個歷史時期的簡體字。本港不時爆發簡體字和繁體字之爭。其實，漢字是在不斷優化和簡化的動態過程。民國時期的所謂繁體字也是針對前歷史時期的簡化字，簡體字。換言之，所謂繁體字也是針對前歷史時期漢字的簡體字。真理是目前所謂簡體字是未來的繁體字，目前的繁體字也是過去的簡體字。這就是簡體字和繁體字的辯證法。漢字的演變和優化形式主要是不斷簡化。繁體字也是某個特定時期（民國）的簡體字。因此之故，簡體字和繁體字之爭是虛偽的政治化操縱。

The following conclusion was reached: Debates concerning simplified and traditional Chinese characters are a recurring theme in Hong Kong. In reality, Chinese characters are undergoing a dynamic process of continuous optimization and simplification. The "traditional characters" of the Republic of China era were, in essence, simplified versions of characters from earlier historical periods. Therefore, it can be posited that these "traditional characters" are, in essence, simplified versions of Chinese characters from preceding historical periods. The contemporary notion of "simplified characters" can be viewed as a precursor to the eventual establishment of "traditional characters," and the current "traditional characters" can be regarded as a predecessor to the "simplified characters" of the past. This dialectic manifests in the juxtaposition of simplified and traditional characters. The evolution and refinement of Chinese characters is characterized by a persistent process of simplification. Traditional characters are also the simplified characters of a specific historical period (the Republic of China era). Consequently, the discourse surrounding the utilization of simplified and traditional characters is regarded as a politically motivated manipulation.

從漢字演變的歷史長河來看，「繁體字」（現通常稱為正體字）確實也是某個歷史時期簡化的結果。 

文字學上，並不能簡單地將現在通行的「繁體字」視為最原始的狀態，而是漢字在演變過程中，歷代都在進行不同程度的簡化。 

以下是具體的歷史邏輯：

1. 繁體字本身就是一種「簡化」

• 字形演變： 最早的文字如甲骨文、金文，許多字形是描繪事物的形狀，極為複雜（圖畫性強）。到了小篆、隸書、楷書階段，文字逐步去圖畫化、符號化。與甲骨文相比，小篆是簡化，隸書更是極大的簡化。

• 歷代俗字： 所謂「繁體字」通常是指以《說文解字》為代表的、定型於漢魏的字體。但在這之後的歷史中，民間書寫為了追求快捷，一直使用著大量的「俗體字」、「簡筆字」，這些字後來很多被納入了現代的簡化字中。 

2. 「簡化」是漢字發展的常態

• 書寫效率： 歷史上，文字的使用者為了省時、省力，一直在把繁雜的漢字「化繁為簡」。例如草書、行書的出現和流行，本身就是為了快寫。

• 草書楷化： 許多現在的簡化字（如：书、为、乐），早在幾百年前的唐宋時期就已經在民間流行了，來源於草書的楷化。 

3. 繁體與簡體的區別在於「標准化」

• 傳統繁體（正體）： 是歷代文字演變後，被當作標准的、書面化的字體。

• 簡化字： 是現代（主要在1950-1960年代）政府組織專家，系統地將歷史上流行的俗體、減筆、草書楷化進行重新整理和標准化。 

總結來說：漢字歷史演變的規律是「繁化—簡化—再簡化」。繁體字是古人簡化後的產物，而簡化字是現代人對這種簡化趨勢的進一步標准化與系統化。兩者都有其存在的歷史合理性。

The following is the English version of the explanation: This is a profound perspective. From the perspective of linguistic evolution, "Traditional Chinese" (often referred to as "Orthodox Characters") can be considered the result of simplification during specific historical periods. In paleography, Traditional Chinese should not be perceived as the "original" state of the script. Instead, it is a stage in a protracted historical process of continuous simplification. The historical logic is as follows:

1. The utilization of traditional characters as a method of "simplification"

Structural Evolution: The earliest scripts, including the Oracle Bone and Bronze Inscriptions, were characterized by their rich pictographic content and intricate complexity. As the script transitioned into Small Seal, Clerical, and Regular script (Kaishu), characters underwent a transformation, becoming less like drawings and more like abstract symbols. In comparison to Oracle Bone script, Small Seal script can be regarded as a simplification, and Clerical script can be regarded as a substantial advancement in terms of streamlining. Historical Vulgar Forms: The "Traditional Characters" that are recognized today underwent significant standardization during the Han and Wei dynasties. However, throughout history, commoners have employed "vulgar forms" (Suti) or "shorthand" to write more rapidly. A considerable number of contemporary Simplified characters are, in fact, remnants of ancient shorthand systems.

2. "Simplification" as a Historical Constant

Efficiency: For millennia, users of Chinese characters have sought to reduce the time and effort required for communication. The advent and prevalence of Cursive (Caoshu) and Running (Xingshu) scripts were, in essence, responses to the necessity for accelerated writing. Cursive-to-Regular Conversion: Many contemporary simplified characters (e.g., 书 for 書, 为 for為) have gained popularity in folk writing since the Tang and Song dynasties. These characters can be considered the "regularized" versions of ancient cursive styles.

3. "Standardization"

The key difference between these characters and traditional (orthodox) characters lies in their "standardization." These forms were historically designated as the official, formal standard for scholars and government.

In summary: These forms were systematically collected and standardized by the government in the 1950s and 60s, drawing from historical shorthand, folk variants, and cursive forms. In summary, the evolution of Chinese characters follows a pattern of "complication followed by simplification." Traditional characters are the result of ancient simplifications, while modern Simplified characters are a further systematic standardization of that same historical trend. Each of these approaches possesses its own historical legitimacy.

Book: IKKI KITA'S SPIRITUAL NOTICE DIARIES: VOLUME 1

New Release

🔻 BOOK DATA -  IKKI KITA'S SPIRITUAL NOTICE DIARIES: VOLUME 1

Title: IKKI KITA'S SPIRITUAL NOTICE DIARIES: VOLUME 1

Author: Ikki Kita

ISBN: 9789887115267

Language: English

Publisher: Ryota Nakanishi

(April 14, 2026)

The subsequent assertion has been proffered by the publisher of the aforementioned publication:

The publisher extends its gratitude to the true readers and to all individuals who have procured the books. The neoclassical studies will persist in order to reinvigorate the essence of patriotism.

---

IKKI Kita's Spiritual Notices and Ishin Revolution Theory

北一輝の霊告と維新革命論（1926年―2026年）

Written by Ryota Nakanishi

The application of neoclassical principles to historical studies^[1]. 

The final major work of Ikki Kita is his diaries, which are composed of six notebooks. The first and second notebooks were rewritten and doubled, resulting in a total of four notebooks. The initial English translation is also comprised of four volumes and is to be published in sequence, accompanied by the translator's elucidations and the results of their research, which will be footnoted. 

From April 27, 1929, to February 28, 1936, Ikki Kita maintained daily diaries, documenting a period of approximately seven years. This practice was initiated subsequent to his daily recitation of the Lotus Sutra^[2] in the presence of his wife, Suzuko^[3]. A number of scholars and critics have endeavored to interpret the diaries, particularly in relation to the social events of the recorded date or Kita's real life. Nonetheless, the diaries principally comprise Kita's personal reflections, presented as spiritual communications from the gods and Buddhas. These reflections incorporate Japanese legends into historical contexts. Contrary to popular belief, Kita was a devout adherent of the Lotus Sutra, yet he was not recognized as a member of any religious sect. He categorically rejected the notion of affiliation with any particular religion. However, he himself ingeniously formulated his own religious practice and belief system, meticulously documented in his diaries, and then reflected upon. It is evident that the religious rhetoric employed by the subject is not confined to Nichiren Buddhism^[4]. Indeed, the subject has cited Shinran^[5], Honen^[6], Kukai^[7], and other Japanese Buddhists, as well as practitioners of Shintoism^[8]. His peregrinations, meticulously chronicled in his diaries, encompassed Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines. Therefore, the aforementioned perspective can be classified as eclecticism. The subject's position is consistent with the Ikki Kita, a doctrine that does not align with any specific Buddhist sect or Shintoism. This is also the case with regard to his political stance, which can be characterized as neither right-wing nor left-wing, but rather as Ikki Kita. Any autonomous thinker forms his or her own system and position, not blindly following "stars" or "knowledge of leaders." In an ideal scenario, all individuals would initially possess these characteristics. The diaries of Ikki Kita serve as a primary source for understanding his personal history; conversely, his personal history serves as a primary factor in defining the content of his diaries. 

Tanba Tetsurô^[9], an actor and relative of Ikki Kita, held Deguchi Onisaburō (1871–1948)^[10], the leader of Oomoto-kyo^[11], in high esteem. Tanba's directorial magnum opus, "Daireikai" (Great Spirit World)^[12], was a 1989 Japanese film. A comprehensive analysis of the diaries discloses a unifying theme of spirituality. However, Kita's spiritual inclinations manifest more as rhetorical devices, addressing real-life situations that pertain to Kita. This perspective stands in contrast to the works of Deguchi Onisaburō and Tanba Tetsurô, who place a greater emphasis on the spiritual realm. It is unfortunate that Kita and Deguchi shared similar reformist or revolutionary ideologies and advocated for the prevention of fatal wars. Nevertheless, Kita was compelled to discuss Oomoto-kyo and Deguchi in the aftermath of the February 26 Incident^[13]. A re-examination of the fundamental conflict between them under fair conditions is imperative. A thorough examination of the diaries reveals a striking similarity to cinematic works, while their content suggests that they are, in fact, philosophical notes. The style in question constitutes an integral component of the activist career, as it is meticulously designed to safeguard the well-being of Kita himself and his associates in the event of his arrest subsequent to 1929. It is imperative that readers consider the constant threat of arrest that Kita faced when contemplating his diary style. The distinctive style of the diaries was influenced by the subject's considerable experience as an underground activist. This tangible aspect possesses a greater degree of potency in comparison to the standpoint that is exclusively spiritual in nature. 

The technical aspects of the diaries: 

1. In the original text, the date is located at the conclusion. However, this English translation aligns with Kenichi Matsumoto^[14]'s edits, which also include dates at the beginning for the sake of clarification. Additionally, a year has been appended to each section. 

2. The first and second notebooks, which were rewritten by Kita himself, are dated "after April 27, 1929" and "after October 24, 1930," respectively. The discrepancies between the original and revised versions are indicated in footnotes or consolidated into a single reference. However, a closer examination reveals no fundamental differences between the two approaches. 

3. The diaries are entitled in a variety of ways. For instance, Kita designated it "Shinbutsu-gensyu" (Divine and Buddha Sayings) and subsequently referred to it as "Tenkei-roku" (Book of Divine Revelations). The title has been referred to by various names, including "Kita Nikki" (Kita Diary), "Reikoku" (Spiritual Notice), "Reikoku-cho" (Book of Spiritual Notices), "Reikoku Nikki" (Spiritual Notice Diary), "Syuki" (Handwritten Notes), "Reikoku Kiroku" (Spiritual Notice Records), and "Reikan-teki-Yogensho" (Spiritual Prophetic Book). This book title pays respect to the tradition of taking the name of "Spiritual Notice" and "Diary."

4. Each notebook is characterized by its thickness, which is precisely 5 centimeters. Its dimensions correspond to a standard album size, with a length of 26 centimeters and a width of 19 centimeters. Notably, this notebook does not conform to the conventional linear dimension standards typically associated with note-taking implements.

5. The collection of six notebooks, when considered collectively, spans approximately 1,600 pages, featuring Kita's substantial fonts and his use of a fountain pen. The publication was subsequently reorganized in the modern printing format, resulting in a volume of approximately 300 pages. This was the case in 1987. The book version will encompass the comprehensive content of the diaries. Consequently, each volume exhibits a greater similarity in length to the 1987 version. 

6. It is plausible that Kita obtained this notebook in April 1929, which may have served as a catalyst for the inception of his diaries. Each of the six notebooks is adorned with a black leather cover and gilt top. This results in an ensemble that evokes the impression of an extravagant album. The paper is printed with a logo that reads "HAMMERMILL BOND^[15] MADE IN USA." Therefore, the notebooks are from America. 

7. The main four notebooks are labeled with 'The First' to 'The Fourth' in gold. 

8. Kita's utensils were characterized by their substantial size. The application of these tools is not confined to the use of a pen, notebooks, and a working desk. 

The following inquiry seeks to ascertain the factors that contributed to the genesis of Kita's Spiritual Notices. 

It is an integral component of his lifestyle that he engaged in the practice of reading Lotus Sutra with Suzuko in a shamanist setting until 10 a.m. following the Kita family's return to Japan from Shanghai in early 1920. The family unit in question consists of three members: Ikki, Suzuko, and Daiki^[16]. Although Kita's Lotus Sutra belief had commenced three years prior, during 1916 (Taisho 5). Spiritualism (a term encompassing necromancy, spirit mediumship, and psychic phenomena) has been identified as being closely associated with Kiaijutsu (a mental concentration technique)^[17] and hypnosis. Consequently, the spiritual notices composed by Ikki Kita reflect the three elements in an unavoidable manner. This practice does not align with Nichiren Buddhism; nevertheless, it demonstrates a stronger resemblance to Voodoo^[18] in its ambiance. Itako^[19] serves as a living exemplar of this practice. Subsequent to receiving instruction from Eifuku^[20], a prominent spirit or experimental medium of that era in hypnotism, Kita incorporated the Lotus Sutra technique into his practice. Eifuku had effectively treated Suzuko's hysteria, which subsequently taunted her from Shanghai by imparting the technique of reading the Lotus Sutra to her. Eifuku engaged in hypnotherapy with Suzuko. This event provided the impetus for the prophetic and de facto rhetorical use of Nichiren^[21] scrolls to camouflage daily thoughts on notebooks after the American notebooks were obtained in 1929. Consequently, the Spiritual Notice functions as a conduit for communication with the external world, while circumventing the potential for legal action from authoritative entities. The author continues to employ a classical underground writing style, synthesizing both his early poetic talent and his activist career from the middle to the end of his career. As previously stated, the substance of the spiritual notices has been outlined in this text. 

The two notebooks that have been duplicated are the first and second ones, respectively, with no substantial alterations. The first notebook commences on April 27, 1929, while the second notebook begins on June 30, 1934. The minor discrepancies between the original and duplicated notebooks are addressed in the footnotes. Consequently, a total of six notebooks can be precisely reorganized into four notebooks, as Kita himself has indicated. 

The subsequent step in this sequence of events is the discussion of Kita's practice of the Sutra. The following inquiry is posed: under what circumstances were the spiritual notices produced? This method is also applicable to the interpretation of diaries. Subsequent to his return to Tokyo from Shanghai in 1920, Kita resumed his habitual practice of reading the Lotus Sutra until 10 a.m. It’s his Yuzonsha^[22] period. This occurrence is particularly noteworthy given that the subject's Hokekyo^[23] belief system had been established a full three years prior, during the Taisho 5 era^[24]. Kita's religious style was established in the early years of the Showa^[25] era. It can be posited that this phenomenon constitutes Kita's proprietary religious system. 

Kita read the Sutra in front of the designated Shin-butsu-dan, which translates to "Gods and Buddhas' Altar." The altar's design is as follows: Two white wooden tablets were present at the altar, inscribed on both sides. Each tablet was dedicated to Kita and his wife and bore the Sutra mantra "Namumyohorengekyo." The focal point of the altar is Emperor Meiji^[26]'s bronze statue. Furthermore, Heihachiro Togo^[27]'s written scroll, entitled "Hachiman-daibosatsu^[28]," was positioned on the left side and presented to Kita by Naganari Ogasawara^[29], the author of Togo's memoir^[30]. A network of Kita was present in the Navy via Ogasawara. The line is referred to as Kita-Ogasawara-Togo or Kanji Kato^[31]. Moreover, Kita presented his Shanghai souvenir to the Prince (eventually crowned Emperor Showa)^[32] of the Lotus Sutra via the Navy Ogasawara line, successfully facilitating the exchange of one of the seven sets of the aforementioned Sutra.

The remaining sets were subsequently presented to the following individuals: Naganari Ogasawara, Heikichi Ogawa^[33], Kametaro Mitsukawa^[34], and Toten Miyazaki^[35]. Kita's personal Hokekyō was derived from the temple of his mother, Riku^[36]'s family, known as Konpon-ji^[37], which is located in Sado^[38]. Konpon-ji is a family temple for the Kitas.

The roles were as follows: Kita was the priest, and Suzuko was the shaman. Contrary to popular belief, Suzuko did not enter a trance after Kita's execution, as asserted by Hatsuko Nishida^[39] and Kenichi Matsumoto. The spiritual practice, at its most superficial level, entailed the use of divination to identify a cure for Suzuko's state of possession and the empire of Japan^[40]. However, at a fundamental level, the primary function was to provide a secure veil of rhetoric and reflection, concealing Kita's genuine daily musings and responses to actual events. Consequently, while the diaries and Lenin^[41]'s philosophical notes^[42] share analogous objectives, their stylistic divergences are pronounced. One of these texts employs camouflage, while the other is characterized by direct composition of written memos for the purpose of preparing Lenin's political struggles. A further distinction emerges when comparing Kita's diaries to those of Che Guevara^[43]. Che's diaries^[44] were written in a conventional manner. Of the diaries, Kita's is arguably the most challenging to comprehend. This suggests that the censorship and police control experienced by Japanese dissidents were more stringent than those experienced by both Lenin and Che. 

Suzuko entered a trance during reading the Lotus Sutra with Kita as a spiritual medium. Then, she said something unclear or writing something mysterious. Finally, Kita interpreted it and recorded in the notebooks. The diaries contain mysterious words from divine spirits, they also include imaginations or dreams of Kita, Suzuko, and other attendants of the day, Suzuko’s travels, Kita and his family’s pilgrimages to Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples, and stories of his visitors.

The route to the initial publication in 1987 was as follows: In 1936, the military police, under the command of Kameji Fukumoto^[45], confiscated the diaries from Kita. Following Kita's demise, the diaries were returned to Suzuko. Subsequently, Suzuko entrusted them to Kita's disciple, Yoshima Babazono^[46]. Subsequently, the property was acquired by Soichi Kajiya^[47] and his family. Following Kajiya's demise, the responsibility of safeguarding these documents was entrusted to Kajiya's long-standing associate, Kenji Hada^[48]. Subsequently, Hada entrusted them to Isao Fujii^[49] and Kaoru Furukawa^[50], who endeavored to publish them. In this course, the responsibility of achieving the first publication was entrusted to Ikki Kita researcher Kenichi Matsumoto, a prolific writer, in 1987 via Third Civilization Publishing^[51]. It was not until 1989 that the pieces were formally donated to the Ryotsukyodo Museum^[52] by Kenichi Matsumoto. 

Prior to the publication of the diaries in their entirety by the Japanese in 1987, Yoshima Babazono and Soichi Kajiya had already published excerpts of the content^[53]. In relation to the diaries, it is important to note that these words were also perceived as prophecies, akin to the practices of shamanism. As with Leon Trotsky^[54], Ikki Kita was also regarded as a prophet in the posthumous legends. The formula is that the recitation of the Lotus Sutra, the reflections of Kita, and the shamanic practices combine to produce 'reikoku', which translates as 'spiritual notices' or 'prophecies'. Notwithstanding, the spirituality exhibited is authentic. From a mystical, epistemological and metaphysical perspective, the practice and diaries can be regarded as an endeavor to comprehend forces beyond our comprehension, behind real historical events. The recitation of the Sutra method was employed not only as a means of expression but also as a rhetorical device to veil Kita's thoughts in the context of a police state. This definition is predicated on realpolitik and the reflection of revolutionaries on the agnosticism of the cause, the whole and the future in the midst of revolutions. 

Nevertheless, since 1987, three questions have remained unresolved, due to the absence of direct evidence to support the allegations made by critics. The initial query pertains to the rationale behind the utilization of the specified date as a point of departure. The second issue pertains to the rationale behind Kita's decision to revise two of the texts, implementing minor alterations. The third issue pertains to the existence of diary-like writing prior to the aforementioned period. However, it is the diaries themselves that provide the answers. The diaries elucidate the period of existence and meaning that constitute the spiritual life of Ikki Kita. The diaries function as a medium for this purpose. However, beyond this preliminary context, there appears to be a paucity of substantive content. This assertion is supported by the diaries. 

The following section will outline the main characters of the spiritual notices:

The most prominent exponents of this spiritual notices are typically referred to as Sennin^[55] or Oldman, exemplified by figures such as Musashi Miyamoto^[56], Bokuden Tsukahara^[57], Hikokuro Takayama^[58], and Heihachiro Oshio^[59]. Other notable figures include Masakado Taira^[60], Koho Daishi as Kukai, Yoshinobu Tokugawa^[61], Joko Kameyama^[62], Shotoku Taishi^[63] and Nichiren. The samurai rebels are reminiscent of the historical pulp fiction novels of Kita's preference, such as ‘Dai-bosatsu tōge^[64]’ and 'Tange Sazen^[65]', which are characteristic of the genre. It is evident that the most politically significant 'reikoku' was from Saigo^[66], Yamaoka^[67], Taneomi^[68], Nantenbō^[69], Emperor Meiji, Nogi^[70] and Oyama^[71]. Furthermore, Rai San'yō^[72], Kawaguchi Seppō^[73], Hirobumi Ito^[74], Taisuke Itagaki^[75], Aritomo Yamagata^[76] and Kaoru Inoue^[77] appear twice or three times. Despite the fact that Kenichi Matsumoto was unable to ascertain the identity of the so-called Zendo during his lifetime, it has been established that it was in fact the Chinese monk Shandao^[78]. An alternative answer to this mystery is Yoshimichi no Sanesada. Yoshimichi is a personal name. Yoshimichi no Sanesada was a prominent figure during the early Heian period, holding the title of an aristocrat and being recognized as a scholar of Confucianism.

A comparative analysis of the two sects reveals that Kita's family exhibited a greater adherence to the Shinran sect than the Nichiren sect. This assertion is substantiated by the historical record, which shows that his great-grandmother, Kura^[79], and his grandmother, Roku^[80], were devout adherents of the Shinran sect. Indeed, the subjects displayed such profound devotion to Shinran that they expressed a desire to perish on the same day as him. According to the legend, Kura died in accordance with her wishes, while Roku perished a day later. However, it is noteworthy that Shinran passed away on January 16, 1263, which is earlier than the dates of Kura's 28th and Roku's 29th. A re-examination of the legend would have been beneficial. 

Despite not being a disciple of Nantenbō, many characters mentioned in the diaries were Nantenbō's disciples. For instance, the following individuals are notable: Tesshu, Nogi, Kodama Gentaro^[81], Kono Hironaka^[82], Oishi Masami^[83], Takashima Heizaburo^[84], Nakano Seigo^[85], and Kaneko Fumiko^[86], among others. It is evident that a direct relation exists between Nakano and Kaneko on the one hand, and Kita on the other. This suggests the presence of a network that connects Kita's spiritual notices with his surrounding community. 

Moreover, these “experts” performed spiritual activities within their respective fields; thus, their roles are not random. They didn’t randomly reveal things to Kita about fields unrelated to their professions. For example, Soejima was responsible for foreign affairs, Nogi and Oyama for military affairs, Saigo and Miyamoto for national policies, Heihachiro Oshio for agrarian uprisings, and Hikokuro Takayama for emperor-kokutai ^[87]matters and Ito for the constitution. 

The writing style of Kita's diaries (1929-1936) best fits the national situation of the period, when he could have been arrested at any time. However, he didn’t specify the origin of the spiritual notices during the first six months of the first notebook and the February 26 Incident. The diaries contain Kita’s emotional status and imaginations, as well as the last spiritual notice at 1:00 p.m. on February 28, 1936. In practice, the characters disseminating spiritual notices are Kita’s intermediaries. In fact, the origin is Kita himself. 

Although this preface aims to provide a general understanding and avoid delving into specific spiritual analysis, death has the heaviest emotional impact in the diaries. If we view the diaries and his life as works of art, tragedy gives form to their narratives. The dead mentioned in the diaries are: 1) those who died at sea during the Russo-Japanese War^[88], 2) his parents^[89], and 3) the victims of the Nikolayevsk incident (1920)^[90]. This incident is rarely mentioned today, yet it was part of Japan’s Siberian invasion^[91] and the Russian Civil War^[92]. The incident made Kita obsessed with the idea of a Soviet-Russian invasion supported by Japanese leftists, especially the Japanese Communist Party^[93], who were allegedly spies. This also refined his pure socialist theory of socialism with Japanese characteristics, which competed with Communism to protect Japan in the context of realpolitik. This dynamic made his socialism unique. Therefore, it is not understood as anti-communist today. At that time, both Kita and the rebels of the February 26th Incident were labeled as Reds by the establishment despite their conservative ideas. The emperor's revolution is Kita's revolution, or the revolution of the emperor.

Readers can discern Kita’s disdain for party politics and plutocracy. Like other civilians at that time, he preferred the clean image of military officers who had not yet been corrupted by capitalists and political parties. Furthermore, during Japan's period as a police state, only the military was capable of defeating the police. This sentiment permeates the diaries. His political stance is crystal clear. In short, the London Naval Treaty^[94]-related spiritual notices embody Kita’s image of the clean military officials. Further, the heroic image is overlapped with the legendary deceased military figures. There are the clean army legends on one side, the corrupt cabinet on the other side in a stark contrast. Kita's stance on a strong military is simply to protect national sovereignty. However, this stance is combined with the military officers' clean political image as the sole reliable revolutionary force in Japan at the time. 

The translator's approach to this task involves reading the diaries as philosophical notebooks, akin to Lenin's Philosophical Notebooks from 1914 to 1916. As demonstrated in the diaries, Kita's revolutionary thought is marked by his conviction that the emperor ought to be transformed into a chosen representative of the people, rather than the people being regarded as the emperor's property. In a similar manner, there is a need to transition the emperor's military into a force aligned with the interests of the populace. Furthermore, there is a necessity to transform the imperial households' assets into national assets, ensuring their utilization for the benefit of the entire community. This comprehensive study delves into the intricacies of Kita's revolutionary concept and his unalloyed socialism. The objectives were accomplished by the GHQ^[95] in the aftermath of World War II^[96]. Consequently, the Showa Restoration^[97] was concluded without the restoration of the nation's right to declare war^[98]. The restoration of the right to declare war in full scope was considered a sacred duty by the Japanese, as it was a fundamental aspect of their sovereignty. However, this right was in direct conflict with the prevailing post-World War II order established by the five permanent representative states^[99], which wielded the predominant influence in the region. The realization of this objective is predicated on the actions of Prime Minister Sanae Takaichi^[100] and her ruling party, the Liberal Democratic Party^[101]. In the modern democratic context, this perspective is essential for comprehending Japan. 

A fundamental dichotomy exists between Ikki Kita's "Kitaism" and the Imperial Way Faction^[102], as well as the state socialism of that era. Kita's doctrine posits that the emperor should serve as a representative of the populace, not as the proprietor of the nation. This position is in contrast to the ideological framework of the Imperial Way Faction and state socialism, which is predicated on the notion of governance by an imperial sovereign. This ideological contrast is further accentuated by the rhetorical discourse that characterizes the discourse surrounding the historical concept of the old national polity theory. Moreover, the state socialists were subject to comparable criticisms. Moreover, Kita's concept of overthrowing the prevailing national political order and ushering in a new paradigm stood in contrast to the Control Faction^[103] and its subsequent post-war nationalists^[104]. Absent this detail, Kita could be erroneously conflated with the militarist factions of that era, a conflation that persists in contemporary anti-Japanese propaganda. 

The sequence of events, which encompassed a series of assassinations and coups, was unmistakably influenced by the Shōwa Financial Crisis^[105]. This crisis precipitated widespread deflation and impoverishment among agricultural villages, constituting the preponderance of the social group, inclusive of the military. The 1930s were marked by a significant escalation in various forms of societal conflict, including those pertaining to agriculture, labor, political assassinations, and military coups. A significant event that occurred during this period was the February 26 Incident. This event also represented a significant milestone as the largest and final occurrence in these categories. 

A plethora of deities, including but not limited to Gods and Buddhas, are depicted within the diaries. The following are Buddhist-related: A number of notable figures are associated with this tradition, including Nichiren, Amitabha Buddha^[106], the Immovable Wisdom King^[107], the Bodhisattva of Compassion, Avalokiteśvara^[108], Mahavairocana^[109], Kōbō Daishi (Kūkai), Shakyamuni^[110], Dharma^[111], and Thousand-Armed Thousand-Eyed Avalokiteśvara^[112]. The following phenomena are also observed: Shingon Secret Supernatural Powers (Shingon Himitsu Jintsuriki)^[113] and Miraculous or Supernatural Powers of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva (Fugen Jintsuriki)^[114]. The following essay will explore the miraculous and supernatural powers attributed to Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. A comprehensive examination of these powers is primarily outlined in Chapter 28 of the Lotus Sutra, entitled "Encouragement of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra," and the associated Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra, which is often regarded as the epilogue to the Lotus Sutra. Additionally, he is highlighted for his vows in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra^[115]. According to the teachings, Fugen Bosatsu (Samantabhadra Bodhisattva) made a vow to Shakyamuni to utilize his extraordinary abilities to disseminate the Lotus Sutra following Shakyamuni's demise. Additionally, he is entrusted with the responsibility of safeguarding the holders of the Sutra. It is imperative to acknowledge the central role of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva (Fugen Bosatsu) in Kita's religious practice. Throughout the course of his spiritual journey, Fugen Bosatsu served as a guardian and guide, providing Kita with protection and guidance until the culmination of his religious life. Suzuko's belief in Kannon is noteworthy. Kannon, also known as Kannon Bosatsu, is a Japanese Buddhist bodhisattva of mercy and compassion. This figure is derived from the Sanskrit Avalokiteshvara. Consequently, Kita primarily engaged in the reading and recitation of Kannonkyo, specifically the 25th chapter of the Lotus Sutra, which is devoted to the Bodhisattva of Compassion, Kannon (Avalokiteśvara). 

Kita's religious practice includes Shinto. Accordingly, Kita paid a visit to the following locations: Yumiya Hachiman Daibosatsu^[116], Konpira Daigongen^[117], Kashima Jingu Shrine^[118], Katori Jingu Shrine^[119], and Ise Jingu Naiku (Inner Sanctuary)^[120]. Consequently, his religious affiliation was not exclusively aligned with the Nichiren sect. The presence of Jesus^[121] and a cross has also been documented in the diaries. This multifaceted figure's profound interest in diverse religious traditions is evident, despite his dedicated practice of the Lotus Sutra. 

In 1929, Kita made a total of 15 visits to various shrines and temples. Sensoji^[122] was designated as outstanding on six separate occasions. In 1930, Kita made 21 visits to various shrines and temples. The subject under discussion has made ten visits to Sensoji and four visits to Kawasaki Daishi^[123]. In 1931, Kita made a total of 16 visits to various shrines and temples. The number of visits to both Sensoji and Meiji Jingu^[124] was recorded as two. In 1932, Kita made 20 visits to various shrines and temples, including three to Sensoji. Additionally, there was a notable increase in visits to shrines and temples in Tokai^[125] and Kinki^[126]. In 1933, Kita made a total of 49 visits to shrines and temples, including a wide array of Kanto^[127] and Kinki shrines, temples, imperial tombs, and imperial household-related shrines. In 1934, Kita made a total of 83 visits to various shrines and temples, with 23 of these visits dedicated to Shirahige Shrine^[128]. In 1935, Kita undertook an extensive pilgrimage, visiting a total of 52 shrines and temples. It has been documented that the subject under scrutiny has made fifteen visits to Shirahige Shrine and thirteen visits to Sensoji. Kita's visits to Nichiren temples were infrequent, with only a few documented instances of visitation. This practice confirmed that Kita should not be categorized as any Nichiren sect. The assertion by Chinese propagandists that Kita is a Nichiren sectarian is erroneous. This was not the case. In 1930, Kita made a single visit to Nakayama Hokekyoji Temple^[129], whereas I was a frequent visitor during weekends in Japan. In contrast to the observations of official scholars and critics, Kita rarely visited Nichiren temples. Despite his professed disavowal of both Nichiren and the Nichiren religion, he was an ardent adherent of the Lotus Sutra. A nuanced divide exists between these two perspectives. These facts can be corroborated through the diaries, which document his visits to various shrines and temples. 

The fundamental distinction between these two figures lies in the manner in which they approached the recitation of the Lotus Sutra. In the case of Kita, his recitation was driven by a revolutionary spirit, serving as a vehicle for his shamanistic practices and rhetorical expression. In contrast, the recitation of the Lotus Sutra by the other figure was not driven by a revolutionary agenda. Rather, it was driven by Kita's desire to engage in reflection on actual events. Prior to his execution, which occurred a year and a half later, Kita had been imprisoned at the Yoyogi Army Prison^[130], which is now part of the Shibuya city office. The subject's prison life was marked by the habitual recitation of the Lotus Sutra, albeit without the accompaniment of spiritual guidance. The Lotus Satta was in his possession from 1916 until his demise. On August 18, 1937, Kita authored a farewell letter^[131] to his adopted son, Daiki Kita. 

We can conclude the preliminary analysis of the diaries. 

• Kita's self-religion was not confined to Nichiren and the Lotus Sutra in the slightest. Furthermore, he expressed concern regarding world religions. 

• Kita's revolutionary nature is evident in the context of the spiritual notices. The religious practice has frequently been traced back to revolutionary thought, such as that exemplified by Jesus during the Roman Empire^[132], or the nascent grassroots stage of the Japanese Buddhists. Additionally, it can be traced to Martin Luther^[133]'s Reformation (begun in 1517)^[134], and Thomas Müntzer^[135]'s leadership of an agricultural uprising against both Luther and the Catholic Church^[136]. In this context, even Moses^[137] can be regarded as a proponent of class warfare, having liberated the Jewish slaves through social action. History has demonstrated that, in practice, religion and revolution or reform are frequently intertwined or overlapping. Kita was not an anomaly in this regard. 

• Kita sought the divine protection of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva (Fugen Bosatsu) by means of daily recitations of the Lotus Sutra, with a particular emphasis on the Kannonkyo, specifically the 25th chapter of the Lotus Sutra. This was done as a means of counteracting the political repression and assassination attempts against him. 

• In the aftermath of the war, scholars and critics have exhibited an unwarranted fervor in their endeavors to establish a connection between Kita and Nichiren or the Lotus Sutra. In doing so, they have disregarded the practical nuances of the Lotus Sutra and its relative distance from sectarianism. Therefore, it can be posited that the facts and legends surrounding Nichiren, such as his exile to Sado Island and the subsequent inheritance of the Sutra to Kita by Nichiren's close disciple through his mother's family lineage, are merely peripheral factors. Kita was not an adherent of Nichirenism. 

• The distinction between the religious Nichiren-shu and Nichiren-syugi has become obscured in contemporary discourse. The latter is frequently demonized in order to establish an automatic link between militarism and international politics. The former is characterized by unadulterated faith in the most general sense, while the latter exemplifies a practice of incorporating the Lotus Sutra into both the spiritual and the physical aspects of life, in a deliberate manner. This is the basis for Kita's metaphorical reference to the Lotus Sutra as the Quran^[138] or Hadith^[139]. However, a schism persists between Kita and the Nichiren sects of political and religious organizations. Kita deliberately avoided affiliating with organizations such as the Kokuchūkai^[140], an Nichirenist group that was associated with militarism and generally supported the establishment. Why? Kita's status as a revolutionary is indicative of the revolutionary nature of his thought. In order to provide a precise definition of Kita's position, it is necessary to situate it within the broader context of his revolutionary career. 

• The conventional pedagogy of the Lotus Sutra is predicated on the One Vehicle Doctrine (Ichijōshugi), a concept that merits further examination. The fundamental teaching of the Lotus Sutra (Ichijō) posits that all people have the capacity to attain Buddhahood (enlightenment) on an equal basis. The doctrine of the Three Vehicles (Śrāvaka, Pratyekabuddha, Bodhisattva) is regarded as a provisional means (temporary forms) that guides practitioners to the truth. The "One Vehicle of the Buddha" (Ichibusshō) is regarded as the fundamental teaching, as it is believed to ultimately save all beings. The concept of "Eternal Enlightenment" (Kūon Jitsujō) is a fundamental tenet within the philosophical framework of the Lotus Sutra. The hypothesis posits that Shakyamuni did not attain enlightenment at the age of thirty, but had been a Buddha (i.e., one who has attained enlightenment) since a distant past (eternity). Following an extensive series of reincarnations, he ultimately took birth as Shakyamuni and achieved enlightenment, deliberately disclosing this entire sequence of his existence. Thirdly, within the framework of Mahayana Buddhism, the term "Bosatsugyo" is utilized to signify the "Bodhisattva practices." These practices are delineated as actions that are motivated by the altruistic intention of providing aid to others so that they may attain enlightenment prior to the practitioner itself. This representation is of a "path of the bodhisattva," involving selfless service to society, wisdom, and benevolence.

• The one vehicle doctrine is a fundamental tenet of Kita's classless democracy, which is represented by the emperor. The "Bosatsugyo" is interpreted as his completion of a revolution. In this paradigm, Bodhisattvas of the Earth^[141] function as grassroots revolutionaries. It is evident that all of these are rhetorical uses by Kita to depict real politics, despite the veracity of his sympathy for Nichiren and dedication to the Lotus Sutra. 

• Kita did not propose that the Lotus Sutra be selected as the state religion to replace Shinto because his belief was not derived from the Nichiren sect. This critical difference and detail in discourse about Nichiren and Kita merits further examination. 

• Kita and Suzuko were convinced of their ability to communicate with spirits, a conviction that stemmed from their belief in a sixth sense. 

• Kita was fearful of Suzuko's enigmatic sensibility. Consequently, he placed the expansive scroll inscribed with the words "Kannon Riki"—translated as "the power of contemplating Kannon"—in his guest room and utilized it for supplication. 

---

^[1] Although Neoclassicism is not a field of historical study in its own right, it is a profound cultural and artistic movement that is firmly embedded in and propelled by historical developments. The movement's genesis in the 18th century can be traced to a "new" (neo) revival of classical ideals originating from ancient Greece and Rome. Whencontemplated within a historical framework, its emergence can be attributed to the following factors: 1. The impetus for the movement was largely provided by archaeological discoveries. The rediscovery and excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum in the mid-1700s served as a catalyst for the movement, marking a significant turning point in the study and appreciation of classical antiquity. These findings established a "tangible link" to the ancient world, thereby transforming buried ruins into blueprints for a modern, rational society. 2. It employed history as a "moral guide." Neoclassicists held the belief that art should serve as an educational tool, contributing to the enhancement of society. In contrast to the "frivolous" scenes characteristic of the Rococo style that preceded it, artists began to depict historical events and myths, utilizing these mediums to instill civic virtues such as patriotism, self-sacrifice, and courage. An illustrative example of this shift can be observed in the following example: Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii portrays a narrative from the nascent history of Rome, serving as a testament to the profound commitment to civic duty. 3 This artistic composition mirrors the philosophical and intellectual climate of the "Age of Enlightenment." Aesthetically speaking, Neoclassicism can be regarded as the visual manifestation of the Enlightenment, which is often synonymous with the Age of Reason. In a manner similar to that of philosophers such as John Locke, who placed great value on logic and science, Neoclassical artists placed a high priority on order, symmetry, and proportion in a wide array of disciplines, including architecture and literature. 4 The Neoclassical movement had a significant political impact, particularly during revolutionary periods when it was employed to establish national identities. The United States is a notable example of this influence. The Founding Fathers employed Neoclassical architectural elements, such as columns and domes, in the design of government buildings. This choice was influenced by the desire to establish a connection between the nascent American republic and the democratic principles espoused by ancient Greece and Rome. France: The "Empire style" of Neoclassicism was employed by Napoleon to project the grandeur and authority of a new Roman-style empire. In essence, Neoclassicism is not intended to be a research method for historical studies; however, it is one of the most significant styles for historians to study because it demonstrates how individuals in the 18th and 19th centuries utilized the "ideal" past to attempt to construct a "perfect" future.

^[2] The Lotus Sūtra is widely regarded as one of the most significant and esteemed Buddhist Mahāyāna sūtras. It is the primary scripture on which the Chinese Tiantai and its derivative schools—the Japanese Tendai and Nichiren, Korean Cheontae, and Vietnamese Thiên Thai schools of Buddhism—were established.

^[3] This book is considered an advanced volume in the Ikki Kita series; consequently, any relevant family information has been previously delineated in preceding volumes. Suzuko/Yasu Mabuchi (1884-1952), also known as Suzu, passed away on March 3, 1952, at the age of 66. She met Kita at the Matsuzaki Yoko Hotel in Shanghai, where Yasu was an assistant from Nagasaki Prefecture, in late 1911. Her former job was allegedly yūjo, which translates to "prostitute," "courtesan," or "harlot," though this is only an allegation. They married on July 15, 1915, after returning to Japan in April 1913. She was born to Nagasaki contractor Kentaro Mabuchi and Mitsu. Her sisters were the eldest, Yone; the fourth, Kichi; and two other daughters. Yasu was the third daughter. She had three children before her encounter with Kita. Her surname was Iwasaki. The eldest daughter, Hanako (Hana), was born on October 21, 1902, and died in September 1920 at 18 years old. The eldest son, Yuzo, was born on June 22, 1904, and died in September 1915 at 21 years old. The younger son, Yoshitaka, was born on April 17, 1906, and died on February 23, 1952, at 45 years old. 

^[4] Nichiren Buddhism is a Mahayana school that was founded in 13th-century Japan by the priest Nichiren (1222–1282). The central tenet of this school is the belief that the LotusSutra is the ultimate teaching for enlightenment. The practice places significant emphasis on individual empowerment, introspective transformation, and the recitation of the mantra "Nam-myoho-renge-kyo," which is believed to have the capacity to alter one's karma and foster happiness in this lifetime. 

^[5] Shinran (May 21, 1173 – January 16, 1263) was a prominent Japanese Buddhist figure of the Kamakura Period. He is widely regarded as the founder of the Jōdo Shinshū school of Japanese Buddhism. A disciple of Hōnen, the founder of the Japanese Pure Land movement, Shinran articulated a distinctive Pure Land vision that emphasized faith and absolute reliance on Amida Buddha's other power.

^[6] Hōnen (May 13 (April 7), 1133 – February 29, 1212), also known as Genkū, is recognized as the founding figure of the Jōdo-shū ("Pure Land School"), which is regarded as the inaugural independent branch of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism.

^[7] Kūkai (July 27, 774 – April 22, 835), born Saeki no Mao, was posthumously designated Kōbō Daishi (lit. "the Grand Master Who Propagated the Dharma"). He was a Japanese Buddhist monk, calligrapher, and poet who founded the esoteric Shingon school of Buddhism. He traveled to China, where he engaged in rigorous academic studies of Tangmi (Chinese Vajrayana Buddhism) under the direction of the esteemed monk Huiguo. Upon returning to Japan, he established the Shingon school, which is the Japanese branch of Vajrayana Buddhism. It is evident that Kūkai was granted the privilege of disseminating the Shingon teachings and establishing Shingon temples under the auspices of several emperors.

^[8] Shintoism, also referred to as Shinto, is Japan's indigenous religion, characterized by polytheism and animism. With origins that date back over two millennia, it emphasizes the veneration of kami (spirits/deities) that are believed to inhabit nature, ancestors, and landscapes. The absence of a founder or a codified set of beliefs is a distinctive feature of this tradition, which places significant emphasis on ritual purity, harmony, and gratitude. The practice is characterized by the presence of shrines, which are marked by torii gates and serve as sacred sites.

^[9] Tetsurō Tamba (Hepburn: Tanba Tetsurō), born Shozaburo Tanba (Tanba Shōzaburō; July 17, 1922 – September 24, 2006), was a Japanese actor who enjoyed a career that spanned five decades. He has appeared in nearly 300 film and television productions, both in leading and supporting roles, and was the winner of the 1981 Japan Academy Film Prize for Best Supporting Actor.

^[10] Onisaburo Deguchi (Deguchi Onisaburō), born Kisaburō Ueda (1871–1948), was a Japanese religious leader. He and his mother-in-law, Nao Deguchi, were regarded as the two spiritual leaders of the Oomoto religious movement in Japan. While Nao Deguchi is recognized as the foundress (kaisho) of Oomoto, Onisaburo Deguchi is regarded as the holy teacher (seishi).

^[11] Oomoto (Ōmoto; lit. "Great Source" or "Great Origin"), alternatively referred to as Oomoto-kyo (Ōmoto-kyō), is a religion that was founded in the 1890s by Deguchi Nao (1836–1918) and Deguchi Onisaburō (1871–1948). Oomoto is generally classified as a Shinto-based Japanese new religion. The spiritual leaders of the movement have always been women within the Deguchi family, along with Onisaburō as its founding seishi (spiritual teacher). Since 2001, the movement has been under the guidance of its fifth leader, Kurenai Deguchi.

^[12] The Great Spirit World (Daireikai) is a series of films and books produced and starring actor Tetsuro Tamba, based on his own research into the spirit world. These works delve into themes of life and death, recounting narratives such as that of a physicist who perished in an accident and traverses the spirit world, emphasizing the afterlife, the structure of the spirit world, and reincarnation.

^[13] The February 26 incident (Ni Ni-Roku Jiken), also referred to as the 2–26 incident, was an attempted coup d'état in the Empire of Japan on February 26, 1936. The organization was established by a group of young Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) officers with the objective of purging the government and military leadership of their factional rivals and ideological opponents.

^[14] Kenichi Matsumoto (Matsumoto Ken'ichi, January 22, 1946 – November 27, 2014) was a Japanese critic, thinker, writer, historian, and historian of ideas. He was a Professor in the Faculty of Economics at Reitaku University. He has served in numerous academic and administrative capacities, including professor at the China Japanese Language Training Center, professor at Reitaku University's Faculty of Economics, director of Reitaku University's Center for Comparative Civilization and Culture Studies, chairman of the board of trustees of the General Incorporated Foundation Asia Research Institute, visiting professor at Higashi Nippon International University, and special advisor to the cabinet (in charge of East Asian diplomatic affairs).

^[15] "Hammermill Bond" is a term that typically refers to a high-quality, durable paper brand produced by the Hammermill Paper Company (now under Sylvamo Corporation) rather than a specific line of personal notebooks. This paper is renowned for its superior quality and durability, making it a preferred choice for formal documents such as letterheads, reports, and professional correspondence.

^[16] Kita adopted Daiki / Tan Yingsheng (1915-1945), the grandson of Tan Renfeng. Daiki was born on November 28, 1915, and passed away at the age of 29 on August 19, 1945.

^[17] Kiaijutsu is a Japanese martial art that involves the use of a concentrated vocalization (kiai) to harmonize the body's internal energy (ki) for combat purposes. The objective of this technique is to incapacitate, immobilize, or dishearten opponents while ensuring the user's safety. The term "spirit" is understood to signify the combination or unification of spirit, thereby serving as both a mental focus tool and a potential "touchless" defensive technique. 

^[18] Voodoo (also referred to as Vodou/Vodun) is an ancient spirit-based religion that originated in West Africa and underwent significant evolution through the African diaspora in Haiti and Louisiana. The practice is centered on the concept of honoring ancestors and spirits (Lwa) through the mediums of dance, music, and ritual. The objective of these practices is to achieve harmony, healing, and protection. Contrary to popular belief, it does not possess any inherent malevolence. 

^[19] Itako are blind female shamans in Japan who, after undergoing extensive training, engage in communication with spirits, kami, and the deceased through rituals such as kuchiyose. Primarily located in the Tohoku region, the number of active practitioners has been rapidly declining, with only approximately 20 individuals remaining as of 2009, all of whom are over 40 years of age. These phenomena are distinct from the city of Itako. 

^[20] Ikki Kita's education in the recitation of sutras was imparted by Eifuku. It has been posited that Eifuku possessed a Kansai accent. His full name was Eifuku Torazo. At the time, Eifuku had been utilized as an experimental subject in the domain of hypnosis research.  古屋鉄石 著『家庭禁厭術 : 学理応用』, 精神研究会, 明43.7. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクション https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/760118 (参照 2025-10-25)

^[21] Nichiren (1222–1282) was a 13th-century Japanese Buddhist priest who founded Nichiren Buddhism, an ideology that posits the Lotus Sutra as the supreme teaching of Shakyamuni Buddha. He advocated the recitation of Nam-myoho-renge-kyo (the Daimoku) as a means to attain enlightenment in one's current lifetime. The teachings of this figure have been widely adopted, with a focus on personal empowerment and social responsibility. 

^[22] The Yūzonsha (Society of Those Who Yet Remain) was a radical Japanese nationalist pan-Asianist organization founded in August 1919. The group emerged from a pre-existing debate society, the Rōsōkai (Old and Young Society), which was founded in October 1918 by Mitsukawa Kametarō, editor of Dai Nihon (Greater Japan). Despite the Rōsōkai's lack of explicit pan-Asianism or political orientation, its membership included numerous prominent pan-Asianists and political commentators. In response to the perceived inadequacies of the Rōsōkai, particularly its overly non-political orientation, Ōkawa Shūmei and Mitsukawa Kametarō initiated the establishment of the Yūzonsha on August 8, 1919.

^[23] Hokekyō, a foundational text in Mahayana Buddhism, is attributed to the Lotus Sutra, which espouses the doctrine that all sentient beings possess the capacity to achieve enlightenment. It is a fundamental tenet of Nichiren Buddhism, and Hokekyō-ji, a prominent historic temple in Ichikawa, Japan, is dedicated to the dissemination of these teachings. The term can also refer to decorated sutra manuscripts.

^[24] Taisho 5 corresponds to the year 1916 in the Japanese calendar (Taishō era), a period marked by Japan's involvement in World War I, sustained industrial growth, and the emergence of the "Taisho Democracy" movement. 

^[25] The Shōwa era, spanning from December 25, 1926, to January 7, 1989, coincided with the reign of Emperor Shōwa. The Showa era was preceded by the Taishō era and succeeded by the Heisei era.

^[26] Emperor Meiji (born Mutsuhito; November 3, 1852 – July 29, 1912) reigned as Emperor of Japan from January 30, 1867, until his demise in 1912. The Meiji Restoration, which took place in 1868, signaled the beginning of the Meiji era by establishing the Empire of Japan. During his reign, Japan underwent a transformation from a feudal state under the Tokugawa shogunate into a major imperial power.

^[27] Tōgō Heihachirō (January 27, 1848 – May 30, 1934) served as a gensui, or admiral of the fleet, in the Imperial Japanese Navy and became one of Japan's most renowned naval heroes. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the subject served as Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet. In this capacity, he successfully confined the Russian Pacific naval forces to Port Arthur. This was followed by a decisive victory over a relieving fleet at Tsushima in May 1905.

^[28] Hachiman-daibosatsu (Great Bodhisattva Hachiman) is the syncretic, Buddhist-influenced appellation for Hachiman, the extensively venerated Japanese Shinto deity of war, archery, and protector of the nation, the Imperial House, and the warrior class (samurai). As the inaugural deity to be designated with the "Daibosatsu" title, he serves as a symbol representing the convergence of Shinto and Buddhism.

^[29] Viscount Ogasawara Naganari (December 15, 1867 – September 20, 1958) was an admiral and naval strategist in the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Meiji and Taishō periods in Japan. He was also a member of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff. He was also known as Ogasawara Chōsei and Ogasawara Nagayo.

^[30] 小笠原長生 編『東郷元帥詳伝』, 春陽堂, 大正10. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/964335 (参照 2026-03-07)

   小笠原長生 編『略伝東郷元帥』, 南方出版社, 昭和16. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1058150 (参照 2026-03-07)

   小笠原長生 著『晩年の東郷元帥』, 改造社, 昭和9. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1235733 (参照 2026-03-07)

   小笠原長生 著『東郷元帥の偉業』, 海軍省, 昭和10. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1235066 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 編著『聖将東郷全伝』第1巻,国書刊行会,1987.8. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/12220494 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 編著『聖将東郷全伝』第2巻,国書刊行会,1987.8. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/12226027 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 編著『聖将東郷全伝』第3巻,国書刊行会,1987.8. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/12225941 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 編『東郷平八郎全集』第1巻,平凡社,昭和5. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1176089 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 編『東郷平八郎全集』第2巻,平凡社,昭和5. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1176104 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 編『東郷平八郎全集』第3巻,平凡社,昭和5. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1176123 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 著 ほか『東郷元帥』,建設社,昭和9. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1168343 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 編著『東郷元帥詳傳』,春陽堂,忠誠堂,1927.2. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1917193 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 著 ほか『乃木将軍と東郷元帥』,興文社,昭和2. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1717321 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 著 ほか『乃木将軍と東郷元帥』,興文社,昭和4. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1168238 (参照 2026-03-07)

  小笠原長生 述『故東郷元帥を語る』,中央教化團體聯合會,1935.2. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/3459462 (参照 2026-03-07)

^[31] Katō Hiroharu (December 23, 1870 – February 9, 1939), also referred to as Katō Kanji, was a Japanese naval officer who served during the Russo-Japanese War and World War I. The name "Kanji" was adopted in his later years, likely shortly before his promotion to the rank of rear admiral. He held the position of Chief of Navy General Staff from January 22, 1929, to June 11, 1930.

^[32] Emperor Shōwa (Shōwa Tennō; April 29, 1901 – January 7, 1989), known colloquially by his personal name Hirohito, was the 124th emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from 1926 until his death in 1989. He holds the distinction of being the longest-reigning emperor in Japanese history and one of the longest-reigning monarchs globally. During his reign as emperor during the Shōwa era, Hirohito presided over several significant events in Japanese history, including the rise of Japanese militarism, the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Asia-Pacific theater of World War II, and the nation's postwar economic miracle.

^[33] Heikichi Ogawa (Ogawa Heikichi, January 2, 1870 – February 5, 1942) was a Japanese politician and lawyer. The author adopted the pen name Iyama. He was a Tokyo Prefecture common citizen. He has served in a number of prominent positions, including member of the House of Representatives, President of the National Statistics Institute, Minister of Justice, Minister of Railways, and other roles.

^[34] Kametaro Mitsukawa (1888–1936) was a prominent Japanese intellectual, Pan-Asianist, and right-wing writer who played a key role in the intellectual and political movements of early 20th-century Japan. He is recognized for his endeavors to reform Japan and "liberate" Asia through a synthesis of nationalism and Asianist ideology. 

^[35] Tōten Miyazaki (Hepburn: Miyazaki Tōten) or Torazō Miyazaki (January 1, 1871 – December 6, 1922) was a Japanese philosopher who aided and supported Sun Yat-sen during the Xinhai Revolution. 

^[36] Ikki Kita's mother, Riku, was born in 1856 and passed away in 1939 at the age of 84.

^[37] Konponji temple is a prominent landmark on Sado island, with a historical connection to the monk Nichiren during his exile to the island. Konponji Temple is a temple complex consisting of twenty-nine buildings and halls on an area of approximately 56,200 square metres.

^[38] Sado Island is located in the eastern part of the Sea of Japan, falling under the jurisdiction of Sado City, Niigata Prefecture, Japan, and possesses a coastline that extends for 262.7 kilometers. 

^[39] Nishida Hatsuko was the wife of Nishida Mitsugi, who served as the right-hand man of Ikki Kita. Mitsugi was executed for his involvement in the February 26 Incident. In the aftermath of her husband's demise, she has gained recognition for her practices of discarding personal mementos, meticulously organizing his valuable library collection, and distributing keepsakes to individuals with whom she had a connection.

^[40] The Empire of Japan, also referred to as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947.

^[41] Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (April 22 [O.S. April 10] 1870 – January 21, 1924), better known by his pseudonym Vladimir Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as the inaugural head of government of the Soviet Russia from 1917 until his demise in 1924, and subsequently of the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death. Vladimir Lenin, the founder of the Bolshevik movement, played a pivotal role in the October Revolution, which resulted in the establishment of the world's first communist state and the subsequent emergence of a brief period of soviet democracy. His administration prevailed in the Russian Civil War, subsequently establishing a one-party state under the auspices of the Communist Party. From an ideological perspective, the subject can be characterized as a Marxist. The ideological developments he initiated are referred to as Leninism.

^[42] The Philosophical Notebooks of Lenin constitute a series of summaries and commentaries on philosophical works by Lenin. The collection featured works by renowned philosophers and social theorists, including Aristotle, Hegel, Feuerbach, Marx, and Deborin. Lenin's contributions to the field of dialectics have had a seminal impact on Soviet and Chinese studies, particularly in the context of contradiction and the unity of opposites. The Notebooks are frequently contrasted by scholars with Lenin's Materialism and Empirio-criticism.

^[43] Ernesto "Che" Guevara de la Serna (May 14, 1928 – October 9, 1967) was an Argentine Marxist revolutionary, physician, author, guerrilla leader, diplomat, politician, and military theorist. A prominent figure of the Cuban Revolution, his stylized visage has become a countercultural symbol of rebellion and a globally recognized emblem in popular culture.

^[44] The Motorcycle Diaries (1995) is a posthumous, bestselling memoir by Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara, chronicling his 1952 journey across South America with Alberto Granado. Initially a 23-year-old medical student, Guevara's encounters with poverty and injustice during an 8,000-kilometer, multi-modal journey profoundly impacted his ideological perspectives, leading him to adopt a Marxist revolutionary stance. Latin America Diaries (2025) provides a comprehensive account of the author's subsequent travels from 1953 to 1954, including the United States-backed military coup in Guatemala. Other notable diaries by Guevara include Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War and his final Bolivian Diary.

^[45] Kameji Fukumoto, a Japanese Imperial Army Colonel and Kempeitai (military police) officer, is recognized as a pivotal figure in the establishment of the Nakano School, an intelligence training center. He held the position of chief of the Hankow Gendarmerie Headquarters and was convicted of war crimes in the aftermath of World War II, resulting in a life sentence. 

^[46] Yoshima Babazono is recognized as a prominent adherent of the philosopher Ikki Kita. His name is listed alongside notable figures such as Nishida Mitsugi in descriptions of materials related to the thought of Ikki Kita, who was active during the Taisho and early Showa periods.

^[47] Soichi Kajiya was a comrade of Yoshima Babazono, who had taken care of Suzuko after Kita's deathHe was affiliated with the right-wing labor organization Sangyogun (the Industrial Army). 

『大日本生産党十年史』, 大日本生産党,[1941]. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1702595 (参照 2026-03-08)　

  宮本盛太郎 編『北一輝の人間像 : 『北日記』を中心に』, 有斐閣, 1976. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクション https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/12230669 (参照 2026-03-08)

^[48] Kanji Hada was the president of Shimonoseki Commercial Development Co., Ltd.

^[49] Isao Fujii served as the chief of the editorial bureau of The Yamaguchi Shimbun. 

^[50] Kaoru Furukawa (Furukawa Kaoru, June 5, 1925 – May 5, 2018) was a Japanese novelist. He was employed by the Yamaguchi Shimbun newspaper company.

^[51] "Third Civilization Publishing" (Daisanbunmei-sha) is a Japanese publishing house associated with the Buddhist lay organization Soka Gakkai. The institution was founded with the objective of promoting a humanistic philosophy, and it publishes a monthly magazine, Third Civilization, as well as various books focused on Buddhism, peace, culture, and education.

^[52] The Ryotsukyodo Museum (frequently referred to as the Sado City Kyodo Museum) is a local history museum located in Sado, Niigata Prefecture, Japan, in close proximity to Ryotsu Port. The exhibition centers on the cultural, historical, and quotidian artifacts of the Sado Island region, offering insight into the area's development. 

^[53] 宮本盛太郎 著『北一輝研究』, 有斐閣, 1975. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/12262807 (参照 2026-03-08) 

    宮本盛太郎 編『北一輝の人間像 : 『北日記』を中心に』, 有斐閣, 1976. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクション https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/12230669 (参照 2026-03-08)

^[54] According to Trotsky's perspective, the Russian Revolution was regarded as an inevitable process driven by "combined and uneven development." However, he identified several critical factors that determined its success and that were often unpredictable. Key elements that were often unquantified included the rapid, sudden shift in mass consciousness, the critical role of leadership in organizing the spontaneous energy of workers and soldiers, and the "molecular" process of social realignment just before the insurrection. Lev Davidovich Trotsky (November 7, 1879 – August 21, 1940) was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, and political theorist. He played a pivotal role in the 1905 Revolution, the October Revolution of 1917, the Russian Civil War, and the establishment of the Soviet Union. However, he was exiled in 1929 and assassinated in 1940. Trotsky and Vladimir Lenin were widely considered the two most prominent figures in the Soviet state from 1917 until Lenin's death in 1924.

^[55] In the context of Japanese English, the term "Sennin" is frequently translated as "Immortal," "Hermit," or "Sage." This concept pertains to the notion of legendary ascetics within the Taoist tradition who are believed to possess the ability to defy the conventional forces of aging and death. This attribute serves to underscore their perceived transcendent, divine quality, setting them apart from the realm of ordinary mortals.

^[56] Miyamoto Musashi (circa 1583 – June 13, 1645) was a Japanese swordsman, strategist, artist, and writer who achieved renown through his accounts of his unique double-bladed swordsmanship and undefeated record in 62 duels. Musashi is regarded as a kensei (sword saint) of Japan. He is recognized as the founder of the Niten Ichi-ryū (also referred to as Nito Ichi-ryū) style of swordsmanship. In his final years, he authored two significant works: The Book of Five Rings (Go Rin No Sho) and Dokkōdō (The Path of Aloneness).

^[57] Tsukahara Bokuden (1489–March 6, 1571) was a swordsman of the early Sengoku period. He was characterized as a kensei (sword saint), a term denoting a master of the sword who has attained a state of spiritual enlightenment. He is recognized as the originator of a novel Kashima-style of kenjutsu, and he served as a mentor to Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiteru and Ise provincial governor daimyō Kitabatake Tomonori.

^[58] Takayama Hikokurō (June 15, 1747 – August 4, 1793) was a Japanese samurai and historian who is widely regarded as one of the early proponents of the sonnō jōi movement. This movement gained significant influence during the Bakumatsu period, contributing to the events that ultimately led to the Meiji restoration. He was subsequently recognized as one of the "Three Excelling Men of the Kansei Period" (Kansei no san-kijin). His Dharma name was Shōin Ihaku Koji.

^[59] Ōshio Heihachirō (March 4, 1793 – May 1, 1837) was a Japanese philosopher, revolutionary, writer, and yoriki who led an academy of Wang Yangming school (youmeigaku) philosophy in Osaka. Notwithstanding his privileged status, he instigated a brief uprising against corrupt officials in the Tokugawa shogunate.

^[60] Taira no Masakado (died March 25, 940) was a Heian period provincial magnate (gōzoku) and samurai based in eastern Japan. He is notable for leading the first recorded uprising against the central government in Kyoto. Alongside Sugawara no Michizane and Emperor Sutoku, he is frequently designated as one of the "Three Great Onryō of Japan."

^[61] Prince Yoshinobu Tokugawa (Tokugawa Yoshinobu; October 28, 1837 – November 22, 1913) was a Japanese samurai, daimyo, and the 15th and final shōgun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan. He was a key figure in a movement that sought to reform the aging shogunate, but his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In late 1867, he relinquished his position as shogun, while concurrently endeavoring to maintain a degree of political influence. Following the defeat at the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in early 1868, these efforts proved unsuccessful, and the samurai subsequently entered into a period of retirement, during which he largely avoided the public eye for the remainder of his life.

^[62] Emperor Kameyama (Kameyama-tennō; July 9, 1249 – October 4, 1305) was the 90th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. The period of his reign extended from 1260 to 1274.

^[63] Prince Shōtoku (Shōtoku Taishi; February 7, 574 – April 8, 622), also referred to as Prince Umayado (Umayado no ōjî, Umayado no miko) or Prince Kamitsumiya (Kamitsumiya no ōji, Kamitsumiya no miko), was a regent and statesman of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko.

^[64] Dai-bosatsu tōge (Great Bodhisattva Pass) is a term that refers to a well-known serialized novel by Kaizan Nakazato (1913–1941). The novel is comprised of 41 volumes, and there have been several film adaptations of it, including the 1966 film The Sword of Doom. The setting is a real geographical location: Mount Daibosatsu in Japan's Yamanashi Prefecture.

^[65] Tange Sazen is a renowned fictional Japanese samurai character, distinguished by his missing right eye and right arm. The character's initial introduction in 1927 was characterized by a cynical and nihilistic disposition, akin to that of a ronin. Over the course of his cinematic and literary appearances, which spanned over 30 films and various literary works, the character underwent a transformation, evolving into a popular figure known for his witty demeanor and charm. He is best known for his starring role in the 1935 film The Million Ryo Pot, in which he portrays a character who protects a child holding a treasure map.

^[66] Saigō Takamori (January 23, 1828 – September 24, 1877) was a Japanese samurai and politician who occupied a position of considerable influence in the annals of Japanese history. He played a pivotal role in the Meiji Restoration, which overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868. Subsequently, he served in the new Meiji government. However, he later became disillusioned with the direction of the new regime and led the Satsuma Rebellion against it in 1877, in which he was killed.

^[67] Yamaoka Tesshū (June 10, 1836 – July 19, 1888), also known as Ono Tetsutarō or Yamaoka Tetsutarō, was a renowned samurai of the Bakumatsu period who played a pivotal role in the Meiji Restoration. He is also recognized as the founder of the Itto Shoden Muto-ryu school of swordsmanship. In conjunction with Katsu Kaishū and Takahashi Deishū, they were designated "The Three Boats of the Bakumatsu."

^[68] Count Soejima Taneomi (October 17, 1828 – January 31, 1905) was a Japanese diplomat and politician who was active during the early Meiji period.

^[69] Nakahara Nantenbō (April 3, 1839 – February 12, 1925), also known as Tōjū Zenchū, Tōshū Zenchū, and as Nantenbō Tōjū, was a Japanese Zen Master. During his period of activity as a zealous reformer, he also demonstrated remarkable productivity and accomplishment in his artistic pursuits. He produced numerous exemplary works of Zen Art, thereby facilitating the transition from traditional Zen Buddhist art to its subsequent evolution in the 20th century.

^[70] Count Nogi Maresuke, also known as Kiten, Count Nogi (December 25, 1849 – September 13, 1912), was a Japanese general in the Imperial Japanese Army and a governor-general of Taiwan. He was a commander during the 1894 capture of Port Arthur from China and a prominent figure in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, as commander of the forces which captured Port Arthur from the Russians.

^[71] Prince Ōyama Iwao (November 12, 1842 – December 10, 1916) was a Japanese field marshal and a founding member of the Imperial Japanese Army. He was representative of the outstanding military commanders of the late modern period.

^[72] Rai San'yō (January 21, 1780, Aki Province – October 16, 1832, Kyoto) was a Japanese Confucianist philosopher, historian, artist, and poet of the late Edo period. His true name was Rai Noboru.

^[73] Kawaguchi Seppō (January 21, 1819 – July 2, 1890) was a calligrapher hailing from the Satsuma Domain during the late Edo period (Bakumatsu era). He obtained the patronage of Saigō Takamori, who instructed him in calligraphy and Chinese poetry. As will be elaborated upon subsequently, following his return from Okinoerabu Island, he took up residence at the Saigō household, where he functioned as their steward and assumed responsibility for the education of Saigō's children and disciples.

^[74] Prince Itō Hirobumi (born Hayashi Risuke; October 16, 1841 – October 26, 1909) was a Japanese statesman who served as the inaugural prime minister of Japan from 1885 to 1888. Itō served as prime minister on three separate occasions between 1892 and 1901. Furthermore, he was a member of the genrō, a group of senior statesmen who effectively dictated policy for the Empire of Japan during the Meiji era. A pivotal figure in the formation of modern Japan, Itō played a pivotal role in the drafting of the 1889 Meiji Constitution, as well as the establishment of the National Diet and the Japanese cabinet system.

^[75] Itagaki Taisuke (May 21, 1837 – July 16, 1919) was a Japanese samurai, politician, and leader of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement (Jiyū Minken Undō), which evolved into Japan's first political party, the Liberal Party (Jiyūtō). His advocacy for a parliamentary democracy proved to be a seminal influence on the political development of Meiji Japan.

^[76] Prince Yamagata Aritomo (June 14, 1838 – February 1, 1922) was a Japanese statesman and general who served as prime minister of Japan on two occasions, from 1889 to 1891 and from 1898 to 1900. He was a prominent member of the genrō, a group of senior courtiers and statesmen who dominated the politics of Japan during the Meiji era. As the inaugural Chief of Staff of the Imperial Japanese Army, he was the chief architect of the nationalist and reactionary ideology that the army espoused. This has led some historians to consider him the "father" of Japanese militarism.

^[77] Marquess Inoue Kaoru GCMG (January 16, 1836 – September 1, 1915) was a Japanese politician and a prominent member of the Meiji oligarchy during the Meiji period of the Empire of Japan. During that period, he was a senior statesman (Genrō) in Japan, and he exerted a tremendous influence on the selection of the nation's leaders and the formation of its policies.

^[78] Shandao (Zendō Daishi; 613–681) was a prominent Chinese Buddhist scholar monk and a seminal figure in the development of East Asian Pure Land Buddhism. Shandao's corpus exerted a profound influence on subsequent Pure Land masters, particularly with regard to his teachings on the recitation of the Buddha's name and the cultivation of faith. His most prominent disciples included other prominent figures within the Pure Land tradition of his era, such as the Pure Land patriarch Huaigan (640-701). Furthermore, Shandao's teachings played a pivotal role in the development of Japanese Pure Land Buddhism, a movement founded by Hōnen and Shinran. 

^[79] An examination of the paternal great-grandparents reveals that the paternal great-grandmother, who was named Kura, passed away at the age of 79 in 1894. 

^[80] Kura and Rokurōji's children included the paternal grandmother of Ikki Kita, named Roku, who passed away at the age of 75 in 1905.

^[81] Viscount Kodama Gentarō (March 16, 1852 – July 23, 1906) was a Japanese general in the Imperial Japanese Army and a government minister during the Meiji period. He played a pivotal role in the establishment of the modern Imperial Japanese military.

^[82] Kōno Hironaka (August 24, 1849 – December 29, 1923) was a politician and cabinet minister in the Empire of Japan.

^[83] Ōishi Masami (May 26, 1855 – July 12, 1935) was a politician and cabinet minister in the pre-war Empire of Japan.

^[84] Heizaburō Takashima (Takashima Heizaburō, November 18, 1865 – February 15, 1946) was a Japanese educator, psychologist, physical education scholar, and social education activist who served as president of Toyo University, among other positions.

^[85] Seigō Nakano (Nakano Seigō; February 12, 1886 – October 27, 1943) was a journalist and politician in the Empire of Japan, known primarily for his involvement in far-right politics through his leadership of the Tōhōkai ("Far East Society") party, as well as his opposition to Hideki Tojo and eventual suicide under murky circumstances.

^[86] Kaneko Fumiko (Kaneko Fumiko; January 25, 1903 – July 23, 1926) or, more rarely, Pak Fumiko and Pak Munja (Hanja), was a Japanese anarchist and nihilist. The subject was convicted of conspiring to assassinate members of the Japanese Imperial family.

^[87] The term "kokutai" is translated as "national polity" or "national structure." 

^[88] The Russo-Japanese War (February 8, 1904 – September 5, 1905) was a conflict between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan concerning competing imperial aspirations in Manchuria and the Korean Empire. The principal land engagements of the war transpired on the Liaodong Peninsula and in the vicinity of Mukden in Southern Manchuria, while naval confrontations occurred in the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan.

^[89] Roku and Rokutarō, the grandparents of Ikki Kita, gave birth to Keitarō, the father of Ikki Kita, in 1853. Keitaro, the inaugural mayor of Ryotsu Town, passed away in 1903 at the age of 50. Ikki Kita's mother, Riku, was born in 1856 and passed away in 1939 at the age of 84. 

^[90] The Nikolayevsk incident, was a series of mass killings that transpired in the region of Nikolayevsk-on-Amur during the Russian Civil War. The massacre and acts of terrorism perpetrated by the Red Army under the command of Yakov Tryapitsyn (a group of Russian Bolshevik-anarchist, Chinese, and Korean guerrillas led by Ilya Park) resulted in the deaths of thousands of Russians in Nikolaevsk and caused widespread devastation to the region. The target in question has been identified as Russian and Japanese civilians, as well as prisoners of war.

^[91] The Japanese Siberian Intervention (1918–1922) was a significant military operation in which Japan deployed over 70,000 troops to the Russian Far East to provide support to White Russian forces in their opposition to the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War. Initially, Japan was part of an Allied coalition tasked with protecting supplies and the Czech Legion. However, Japan remained in the region for two years longer than other nations, with the strategic aim of establishing a buffer state in Siberia. The intervention proved to be a costly failure, with an estimated 5,000 casualties and financial expenditures amounting to 1 billion yen. It culminated in a withdrawal in October 1922, resulting in Japan retaining only northern Sakhalin until 1925.

^[92] The Russian Civil War was a civil war within the former Russian Empire that took place from 1917 to 1922. It was initiated by the overthrow of the Russian Provisional Government in the October Revolution, leading to a competition among various factions to determine Russia's political future. This dynamic ultimately led to the establishment of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and subsequently, the Soviet Union, which encompassed the majority of its territory. The conclusion of the Russian Revolution, a pivotal occurrence in the 20th century, was marked by this event.

^[93] The Japanese Communist Party (Nihon Kyōsan-tō; abbr. JCP) is a communist party in Japan. The party was founded in 1922 and claims to be the oldest active political party in the country. As of January 2024, the party boasted a membership of 250,000 individuals, a figure that positions it among the most sizable non-governing communist parties on the global stage. The party is currently under the leadership of Tomoko Tamura, who assumed the role in January 2024, succeeding the long-serving leader Kazuo Shii.

^[94] The London Naval Treaty, formally designated as the Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament, was a bilateral agreement among the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Italy, and the United States, which was signed on April 22, 1930. The new agreement sought to address issues not covered in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty. The 1922 treaty had created tonnage limits for each nation's surface warships. The new agreement regulated submarine warfare, further controlled cruisers and destroyers, and limited naval shipbuilding. Ratifications were exchanged in London on October 27, 1930, and the treaty went into effect on the same day. However, it was largely ineffective.

^[95] GHQ is most commonly understood to refer to the General Headquarters (Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers), the governing body led by Douglas MacArthur that controlled Japan during its post-WWII occupation (1945–1952). 

^[96][96] The Second World War, which took place from September 1, 1939, to September 2, 1945, was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis powers. The event garnered the participation of nearly all the countries worldwide. The utilization of tanks and aircraft proved to be of paramount importance, with the latter enabling the strategic bombing of urban areas and the delivery of the sole nuclear weapons utilized during wartime. World War II has been identified as the deadliest conflict in history, resulting in the deaths of 60 to 75 million individuals. It is estimated that millions of lives were lost in genocides, including the Holocaust, as well as in massacres, starvation, and disease. In the aftermath of the Allied victory, Germany, Austria, Japan, and Korea were placed under occupation, and the leaders of these nations were subjected to trials for war crimes.

^[97] The Showa Restoration (Shōwa Ishin) was a slogan employed by reformist and national renewal movements in Japan during the 1930s. This era, also known as the Showa pre-war period, saw a significant focus on social and political transformation.

^[98] While frequently linked to the post-World War I era's pacifist movements (such as the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact), the specific "No War" clause emerged as a post-World War II development aimed at ensuring that Japan would never again pose a threat to global peace.

^[99] The five permanent members of the UN Security Council—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States—possess veto power. The United Nations was established in 1945, and the member nations of the organization hold permanent seats in the General Assembly. The primary responsibility of these nations is to maintain international peace and security. The prevailing geopolitical dynamics of the contemporary world order are characterized by a duality of imperatives. On the one hand, there is the prevailing order of the hegemony war, and on the other, there is the multi-polar world order. These two imperatives, in their interrelated nature, supersede all other political conflicts and serve to unify the five major global powers. A fundamental concept to comprehend is the notion of China's strategic maneuvering or positioning amid the prevailing turbulence.

^[100] Sanae Takaichi (Takaichi Sanae; born March 7, 1961) is a Japanese politician who has served as Prime Minister of Japan and President of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) since October 2025. She is the first woman to hold either of these positions. A member of the House of Representatives from 1993 to 2003 and since 2005, she also held ministerial posts during the premierships of Shinzo Abe and Fumio Kishida.

^[101] The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP; romanized: Jiyū-Minshutō), alternatively referred to as the Jimintō, constitutes a prominent conservative and nationalist political party in Japan. Since its establishment in 1955, the LDP has maintained a consistent hold on power, a period referred to as the 1955 System, with the exception of the periods from 1993 to 1996 and from 2009 to 2012. Sanae Takaichi has served as president of the LDP since October 4, 2025. Since October 21, 2025, she has presided over a coalition government with the Japan Innovation Party (JIP).

^[102] The Kōdōha, also known as the Imperial Way Faction, was a political faction within the Imperial Japanese Army that was active during the 1920s and 1930s. The concept under scrutiny adhered to the fundamental tenets of the emperor sovereign theory, thereby contrasting with the emperor organ theory. The formation of the faction was initiated by staff officers who had graduated from the Army War College. It is imperative to acknowledge that Ikki Kita maintained an impartial stance, not aligning with the Kōdōha or any military factions in his capacity as the emperor organ theorist. 

^[103] The Tōseiha was led by Lieutenant General Tetsuzan Nagata (until his assassination in 1935) and Hideki Tojo, who would later become Prime Minister of Japan. It competed with the Kōdōha for influence within the military until the February 26 Incident in 1936, when the Kōdōha was de facto dissolved and many of its supporters were disciplined or executed. The aforementioned parties were proponents of the total war theory, a doctrine that integrated elements of admiration for both the Soviet Union and Hitler's totalitarian practices. This phenomenon was perceived as a global trend. 

^[104] In the aftermath of World War II, Japanese nationalism underwent a transformation, shifting from its prior state of militant imperialism to a more conservative, cultural, and economic form. This shift was characterized by an emphasis on restoration of national pride, reverence for the fallen, and the revision of the pacifist constitution. While initially dormant under the U.S. occupation, right-wing nationalist sentiment has resurged since the 1990s, driven by organizations such as Nippon Kaigi. 

^[105] The 1927 Shōwa Financial Crisis constituted a significant economic panic that occurred during the early years of Emperor Hirohito's reign. This crisis was precipitated by the repercussions of the 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake and the accumulation of substantial debt, a consequence of the post-World War I economic downturn. This dynamic precipitated widespread bank runs, the collapse of the Wakatsuki government, and an escalation in zaibatsu dominance over the banking sector. 

^[106] Amitabha Buddha (Amituofo in Chinese, Amida in Japanese) is the central, revered Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism, embodying infinite light and life. He is believed to reside in the Western Paradise (Sukhavati), a realm where believers seek rebirth to attain enlightenment. Devotion involves the repetition of his name (nianfo/nembutsu) to attain this state, frequently represented in meditative posture.

^[107] Fudō Myōō (Acala Vidyārāja), the "Immovable Wisdom King," is a prominent figure in the pantheon of wrathful deities within the Japanese Esoteric Buddhism (Shingon) tradition. According to these teachings, he assumes the role of a fierce protector of the Dharma. As the supreme leader of the Five Wisdom Kings, he is regarded as an avatar of Dainichi Nyorai (Vairocana Buddha), utilizing a sword to cut through ignorance and a rope to bind evil. 

^[108] Avalokiteśvara is a Mahayana Buddhist Bodhisattva of compassion who embodies the loving-kindness of all Buddhas. The entity in question is referred to by various names, including "the Lord Who Looks Down" and "the Perceiver of the World's Sounds." It has made a vow to postpone its own enlightenment, with the objective of assisting all beings in their escape from suffering. He occupies a central role in both the Tibetan (Chenrezig) and East Asian (Guanyin/Kannon) traditions, frequently being associated with the mantra Om Mani Padme Hum.

^[109] The Sanskrit name Mahāvairochana is a compound of mahā, meaning great, and vairochana, meaning that which is of, related to, or luminous like the sun. In Chinese Buddhist scriptures, it is translated as "Great Sun." This Buddha is referenced in the Mahāvairochana Sutra and the Diamond Crown Sutra.

^[110] Siddhartha Gautama, who would come to be known as the Buddha (in Sanskrit, "the awakened one"), was a wandering ascetic and a religious teacher. He lived in the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains during the 6th or 5th century BCE and is credited with founding Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was born in Lumbini, in what is now Nepal, to royal parents of the Shakya clan. However, he renounced his home life to live as a wandering ascetic. Following a period of spiritual contemplation characterized by the practices of mendicancy, asceticism, and meditation, he achieved nirvana in Bodh Gaya, a site that is now located within the Indian state of Bihar. Subsequently, the Buddha traversed the lower Indo-Gangetic Plain, where he engaged in the dissemination of his teachings and the establishment of a monastic order, known as the sangha. According to the Buddhist tradition, the individual in question passed away in Kushinagar, which is located in the modern-day state of Uttar Pradesh in India. This event marked the attainment of parinirvana, a term that signifies the ultimate release from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

^[111] In Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, among other religions, the term "dharma" plays a foundational role. The term is characterized as a multifaceted Sanskrit concept that refers to cosmic order, duty, righteousness, virtue, and the "right way of living." Derived from the root dhri ("to support/hold"), it signifies the natural law that sustains the universe, guiding moral conduct and maintaining societal harmony. 

^[112] A prominent example of such an entity is the Thousand-Armed, Thousand-Eyed Avalokiteshvara, also referred to as Qianshou Qianyan Guanyin in Chinese contexts or as Chenrezig in Tibetan traditions. This figure represents a deepening of Mahayana Buddhist teachings, embodying the qualities of ultimate compassion and omniscience. The iconographic form, featuring 1,000 arms (often with an eye in each palm), symbolizes the ability to perceive and relieve the suffering of sentient beings across all realms.

^[113] Shingon is a Japanese esoteric Buddhist (Mikkyō) school founded by Kūkai that emphasizes attaining enlightenment in this life through the "Three Secrets" (body-mudras, speech-mantras, mind-visualization). The practice incorporates ritualistic practices, including homa (a type of fire offering), with the objective of achieving tangible benefits such as prosperity, protection, and the alleviation of illness.

^[114] Samantabhadra Bodhisattva, symbolizing the pinnacle of virtue and exemplary conduct, is endowed with formidable miraculous abilities. These powers are directed towards safeguarding practitioners of the Lotus Sūtra and providing aid to all sentient beings. The Buddha's key powers include the ability to create vast arrays of light from his pores to teach the Dharma, to manifest in limitless forms, and to ride a six-tusked white elephant to symbolize the purification of the six senses. 

^[115] The Avatamsaka Sutra, a Mahayana Buddhist scripture, elucidates the manner in which reality is perceived by an enlightened being. The philosophy is most renowned for its elaborate portrayals of the coexistence of all phenomena. The Avatamsaka further delineates the stages of development of a bodhisattva.

^[116] Hachiman Daibosatsu is a prominent Shinto deity (kami) that is often identified as the "Great Bodhisattva Hachiman" and is worshipped as the guardian of war and the Minamoto clan. He is typically depicted in monk's robes with a shaven head to represent the adoption of Buddhism by Shinto, a concept known as shinbutsu-shugo. 

^[117] Konpira Daigongen (now officially designated as Kotohira-gū or "Konpira-san") is situated on Mount Zōzu in the town of Kotohira, Nakatado-gun, Kagawa Prefecture, on the island of Shikoku, Japan. The temple is renowned for its 1,368-step climb to the inner shrine, and it functions as the primary maritime safety shrine.

^[118] Kashima Shrine (Kashima Jingū) is a Shinto shrine located in Kashima, Ibaraki, in the northern Kantō region of Japan. It is dedicated to Takemikazuchi-no-Ōkami, a deity associated with martial arts. 

^[119] The Katori Shrine (Katori Jingū) is a Shintō shrine located in the city of Katori in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. It is the ichinomiya of the former Shimōsa Province and serves as the head shrine of the approximately 400 Katori shrines nationwide, with the majority located in the Kantō region.

^[120] The Ise Shrine (Hepburn: Ise Jingū) is a Shinto shrine located in Ise, Mie Prefecture, Japan. It is dedicated to the solar goddess Amaterasu Ōmikami and the grain goddess Toyouke-hime (Toyouke Omikami).

^[121] Jesus (c. 6 to 4 BC – AD 30/33), also known as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ, was a 1st-century Jewish teacher and reformer in the Roman province of Judaea who became the central figure of Christianity. According to the Christian belief system, Jesus is regarded as the Son of God, the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, who was crucified and resurrected to offer salvation.

^[122] The temple, known by its official designation, Kinryū-zan Sensō-ji, as well as its colloquial appellation, Asakusa Kannon, is a venerable edifice of Buddhism located in Asakusa, Tokyo, Japan. It is the oldest temple in Tokyo and is considered one of the most significant religious structures in the city. This practice is dedicated to Kannon, the bodhisattva of compassion. 

^[123] The popular designation for the Buddhist temple in Kawasaki, Japan is Kawasaki Daishi (Heiken-ji). The temple was founded in 1128 and currently serves as the headquarters of the Chizan sect of Shingon Buddhism. 

^[124] Meiji Shrine, also referred to as Meiji Jingū, is a Shinto shrine located in Shibuya, Tokyo, which is dedicated to the deified spirits of Emperor Meiji and Empress Shōken. The shrine does not contain the emperor's grave, which is located at Fushimi-momoyama, south of Kyoto.

^[125] The Tokai region, a central subregion of Japan's Honshu island, comprises the prefectures of Aichi, Gifu, Mie, and Shizuoka. The region functions as a significant industrial, cultural, and tourist hub, strategically positioned between the Kanto and Kansai regions. The city of Tokai, Aichi, is notable for its association with Nagoya Castle, LEGOLAND Japan, and the production of guitars.

^[126] The Kinki (or Kansai) region constitutes a central, historically significant area of Japan's Honshu island, encompassing the prefectures of Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, Shiga, Wakayama, and Mie. 

^[127] The Kanto region is a highly developed, densely populated area on Japan's Honshu island, encompassing seven prefectures including Tokyo, Kanagawa, and Chiba. The region functions as Japan's economic epicenter, showcasing a unique blend of modern, fast-paced urban life, revered shrines, coastal beaches, and mountainous scenery, reminiscent of those found in Gunma Prefecture.

^[128] Shirahige Jinja, located in Takashima, Shiga Prefecture, Japan, is a Shinto shrine. The shrine is dedicated to Sarutahiko Okami. It is the head shrine of the Shirahige Shrines nationwide.

^[129] Hokekyō-ji, a temple belonging to the Nichiren-shū school, was founded during the Kamakura period in Ichikawa, located in the Chiba Prefecture of Japan. The Risshō Ankoku Ron, a seminal text attributed to Nichiren, is regarded as one of the National Treasures of Japan and is housed at the temple. The document is presented to the public on an annual basis, coinciding with other pertinent documents on November 3rd.

^[130] The Yoyogi Army Prison (also referred to as the Yoyogi Military Garrison Prison) was a military detention facility operated by the Imperial Japanese Army. It was located on the edge of the Yoyogi Military Parade Ground in Tokyo. The site is located in the Shibuya area, adjacent to the expansive Yoyogi parade grounds. Following the Second World War, this area underwent a transformation into the Washington Heights U.S. military housing complex, subsequently evolving into Yoyogi Park. During the 1930s and 1940s, it functioned as a detention center for Japanese Army personnel. The institution was destroyed during the air raids on Tokyo (war disasters) towards the end of World War II. In the aftermath of Japan's surrender, the surrounding Yoyogi military area was occupied by United States military forces. Subsequently, in 1946, the area underwent a transformation, being converted into a housing development for military officers known as "Washington Heights." 

^[131] 『日本の名随筆』別巻 17, 作品社, 1992.7. 国立国会図書館デジタルコレクションhttps://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/12467424 (参照 2026-03-09)

^[132] The Roman Empire, which was established in 27 BC under Emperor Augustus, was a prominent classical civilization that exercised control over the Mediterranean region, as well as much of Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia. The region is renowned for its contributions to engineering, law, and military innovation. It experienced a period of flourishing until the year 395 AD, when it underwent a division, resulting in the fall of the Western portion in 476 AD and the survival of the Eastern portion as the Byzantine Empire until 1453.

^[133] Martin Luther (November 10, 1483 – February 18, 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, professor, and former Augustinian friar. Luther stands as the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation, and the theological beliefs he espoused form the basis of Lutheranism. He is regarded as one of the most influential figures in Western and Christian history.

^[134] The Protestant Reformation, which commenced on October 31, 1517, was a 16th-century religious movement initiated by Martin Luther in Wittenberg, Germany, when he published his "Ninety-Five Theses." The movement's primary objective was to reform the Catholic Church, challenging practices such as the sale of indulgences. Its impact on Western Christianity was profound, leading to the establishment of Protestant denominations that placed significant emphasis on personal faith, the authority of Scripture, and a rejection of papal authority.

^[135] Thomas Müntzer (d. May 27, 1525) was a German preacher and theologian of the early Reformation. He was known to oppose both Martin Luther and the Catholic Church. As a result of this open defiance of late-feudal authority, Müntzer was targeted in central Germany. Müntzer was among the foremost of the reformers who took issue with Luther's compromises with feudal authority. He was a leader of the German peasant and plebeian uprising of 1525, which is commonly known as the German Peasants' War.

^[136] The German Peasants' War, also known as the Great Peasants' War or the Great Peasants' Revolt (German: Deutscher Bauernkrieg), was a widespread popular revolt in some German-speaking areas in Central Europe from 1524 to 1525. This uprising was the largest and most widespread popular uprising in Europe before the French Revolution in 1789. The revolt was unsuccessful due to significant opposition from the aristocracy, who killed up to 100,000 of the 300,000 poorly armed peasants and farmers.

^[137] In the Abrahamic tradition, Moses, the Hebrew prophet, is recognized as the figure who led the Israelites out of captivity in Egypt during the Exodus. He is regarded as the most significant prophet in both Judaism and Samaritanism, and is considered one of the most prominent prophets in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and other Abrahamic religions. According to the Abrahamic scriptures, God dictated the Mosaic Law to Moses, who then transcribed it, thus forming part of the Torah.

^[138] The Quran (pronounced "the recitation" or "the lecture"), also romanized as Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe that the contents of the Quran are a revelation directly from God (Allāh). The Qur'an is structured into 114 chapters, known as sūrahs, which are collectively referred to as suwar. Each chapter is comprised of individual verses, referred to as āyahs. Beyond its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature and has had a significant influence on the Arabic language.

^[139] Hadith comprises the recorded sayings, actions, and silent approvals of the Prophet Muhammad, constituting the foundational element of Sunnah (prophetic tradition) and serving as the second source of law in Islam after the Quran. Compiled during the 10th-11th centuries, these reports offer guidance on a wide range of subjects, including daily life, ethics, and theology. The authenticity of these reports is classified into categories such as Sahih (authentic), Hasan (good), or Da'if (weak). 

^[140] The Kokuchūkai, also known as the "Pillar of the Nation Society," is a lay-oriented Nichiren Buddhist group. The organization was established by Tanaka Chigaku in 1880 under the name Rengekai ("Lotus Blossom Society"). In 1884, it was renamed Risshō Ankokukai, and it adopted its current name in 1914.

^[141] The Bodhisattvas of the Earth represent a group of enlightened beings described in the Lotus Sutra who emerge from beneath the ground to propagate the Mystic Law in the modern era, which is characterized by turmoil and uncertainty. This phenomenon is referred to as the "Latter Day of the Law." These individuals are distinguished by their compassion, courage, and a commitment to societal transformation. They embody the concept of ordinary people striving to actualize the innate Buddha nature within themselves and their communities.

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Hong Kong Intelligence Report #171 宏福苑大火的消防處問責始末

Open-source intelligence (OSINT)

🔻 IMPORTANT 【重要】宏福苑大火的消防處問責始末

■ 我的結論：

宏福苑大火的消防處問責始末

在宏福苑大火，此一香港史上第三大人災事件上，（A）消防處拒絕國家救援大隊一事以及 （B）其監管責任問題此兩件事都是重中之重。但社會的批判和輿論都極度萎縮，十分被動。好像交給安全的所謂‘建制派’媒體和網紅處理似的。這種僵化狀態本身是個大問題所在。我們在極度有限的輿論和聽證會的‘爭論’上，不能被媒體牽著鼻子走，只需要弄清重點，就好了。

（A）消防處拒絕國家救援大隊一事以及 （B）其監管責任問題此兩件事都是互相滲透的內在關係。從後者可以反過來證實前者，從前者也可證實後者。一旦將此兩者分離，就會失去整體觀。在請不請求，或拒不拒絕國家消防大隊趕赴大埔救火的判斷前，已經有僵化的監管問題始終貫穿。這一直存在的僵化的監管問題反過來影射前者。後者的存在肯定會導致前者。

按人為因素造成的災難死亡人數統計，以下為香港歷史上嚴重的人災： 

1. 第一名：1918年跑馬地馬場大火 (逾600人死亡)

2. 第二名：2025年宏福苑大火 (截至11月28日報導，造成128人死亡、200人失聯，傷亡人數仍可能上升)

3. 第三名：1948年永安公司倉庫大火 (造成超過176人死亡)

關於大埔宏福苑五級大火及其後續聽證會，消防處的責任爭議主要集中於監管權責以及承辦商匯報機制。

消防處的責任定義

根據 2026 年 4 月最新的聽證會進展：

• 最終把關人：消防處長楊恩健承認，消防處在保護生命財產及防火上具「最終責任」與「最後把關責任」。

• 執法權限擴大：處方一改先前「只管消防系統」的立場，承認對發泡膠板、棚網、後樓梯「生口」等火警隱患亦有執法權。

• 跨部門分工：雖然涉及結構問題需與屋宇署溝通，但處長同意不能因屬「被動裝置」就推卸責任。

承辦商與設備的匯報責任

聽證會揭露了大火前消防設備失效的問題：

• 匯報義務：消防處強調，註冊承辦商只要發現消防系統損壞（如警鐘失效、水缸缺水），便有責任向處方匯報。

• 刑事責任：警方已就大火拘捕多人，部分涉嫌向消防訛稱維修期間不會關閉警鐘。

• 制度修訂：消防處計劃加大對延誤申報消防設備損壞的罰則。

事件關鍵事實

• 火災規模：2025 年 11 月發生的五級大火，火勢迅速蔓延至 7 座大廈，焚燒超過 43 小時。

• 失效主因：維修期間消防水缸被放水、消防泵總電掣被關閉，導致警鐘及自動灑水系統失效。

• 外部因素：消防處長表示，由於先前疫情及社會事件影響，通訊系統升級延誤，導致火災時未能及時處理大量求助。

根據最新調查與聽證會進展，答案是：並非全都不屬於消防處範疇。

雖然消防處在火災初期曾表示部分問題涉及物業管理或承辦商，但隨著調查深入，處長已公開承認消防處在多個層面具備監管與執法的法定責任。

以下是權責歸屬的詳細拆解：

1. 消防處「必須承擔」的範疇

• 系統損壞的最終監管：雖然維修是由承辦商（如宏泰）執行，但消防處負責監管這些承辦商。處長承認，若承辦商長期未修好設備且未如實申報，消防處有責任主動巡查及執法。

• 火警隱患的執法權：針對火場中常見的發泡膠板、棚網、後樓梯開口，消防處長在 2026 年 4 月的聽證會上承認，這些都屬於《消防條例》下的「火警隱患」，處方具備直接執法權。

• 通訊與調配責任：火災期間通訊系統癱瘓、未能及時處理求助電話，這屬於消防處內部的行政與技術更新責任。

  
  

2. 與其他部門「共同承擔」的範疇

• 建築結構安全（與屋宇署）：大廈的防煙門、耐火結構屬於「被動消防裝置」。雖然主要由屋宇署監管，但消防處在發現問題時有通報及建議改善的職責，不能完全排除在責任之外。

  
  

3. 屬於「外部第三方」的責任（非消防處直接負責）

• 虛報維修狀況：若承辦商刻意隱瞞已關閉消防泵或警鐘，消防處在收到虛假報告的情況下，初期責任在於承辦商的誠信與刑事過失（這也是目前多名承辦商人員被捕的原因）。

• 物管現場管理：物業管理公司在火警發生時的疏散指引、保安員的反應速度，屬於民事管理責任，而非消防處的執法範疇。

⚠️ 輿論與法庭爭論點

目前最受關注的爭論點在於：「消防處是否因行政怠慢而錯失阻止慘劇的機會？」

• 處方立場：強調是承辦商「隱瞞」了系統失效。

• 受害者/法官立場：質疑消防處作為監管者，為何能容許重要消防設備（如水缸、警鐘）長期處於停用狀態而毫不知情。

  
  

總結： 消防處已無法再以「純屬私人屋苑維修」為由推卸責任。目前最新的定調是：承辦商有申報責任，但消防處有最終的監管與執法責任。

屈穎妍對大埔宏福苑五級大火事件的評論非常犀利，她將此定義為一場「徹頭徹尾的人禍」，並多次發文直指政府官僚制度的崩壞。

以下是她評論的核心觀點：

1. 批評部門「互拉架子」與「唔關我事」

屈穎妍在最新的評論中（2026年4月）指出，聽證會揭露了政府部門最醜陋的一面——推卸責任。

• 拒絕承擔：她直斥消防處等多個部門在聽證會上頻繁使用「不屬其管轄」作為藉口。

• 有權不用：她引用過往案例（如2020年迷你倉大火裁決）指出，法律早已確認消防處有廣泛權力處理火警隱患，但官員卻寧願以「分工」為由視而不見。

  
  

2. 「投訴無門」導致市民報《東張》

她特別提到宏福苑大維修的問題曾被《東張西望》報導：

• 政府失能：她認為市民「報東張」是政府部門、議員及傳統媒體的集體失敗。

• 小事變大事：如果民生小事（如非法發泡膠、消防設備損壞）能透過正常投訴管道火速處理，市民何須向娛樂節目求助？這種「小事無人理」最終醞釀成了幾百條人命的悲劇。

3. 官僚架構與「歌舞昇平」

她在火災後初期的文章《先治好惹來蒼蠅的腐爛》中提到：

• 重表忠輕民生：批評過去幾年社會只重「政治表忠」與「歌舞昇平」，要掌聲不要批評，導致議員和傳媒失去監察作用。

• 學費沈重：她形容這場火是「用幾百條人命來交學費」，若不撼動官僚制度，由治及興只是口號。

  
  

4. 引用《焚城》金句

屈穎妍多次引用電影《焚城》的對白：「人禍，有時比天災更可怕！」。她強調「蒼蠅不叮無縫的蛋」，政府必須先治好內部的「腐爛」（官僚文化），才能真正保障市民安全。

🚨 值得注意的爭議：

屈穎妍的相關文章在《大公報》Facebook發布後，曾被發現遭七度修改並最終刪帖。據報修改內容主要是刪除了她對政府官員「只重表忠、不理民生」的直接抨擊。她隨後回應稱，那是「人家的自由」，但原文仍保留在她個人的社交專頁。 

在 2025 年 11 月 26 日發生的大埔宏福苑五級大火中，消防處確實在火災期間表示沒有要求內地支援，隨後在 2026 年 4 月的獨立調查委員會聽證會中解釋了當時未有引進內地消防隊的技術與操作考量。

以下為消防處在聽證會及火災期間提供的詳細理據：

1. 行動兼容性與通訊障礙

• 語言與指令差異：副消防總長黃思律指出，兩地消防員在通訊指令上存在差異，例如求救訊號「Mayday」，內地消防員可能會用普通話喊「呼救呼救」，在現場嘈雜環境下，香港消防員未必能即時識別。

• 裝備不相容：中港兩地使用的呼吸輔助器型號不同，內地隊伍的裝備未必能與香港系統對接，影響協同作戰的安全。

  
  

2. 現場空間與人手調配

• 現場飽和：聽證會透露火災當日現場已有約 980 名消防員（為一般五級火的 8 倍人手），且現場泊滿了消防車。消防處認為當時「再多的人手都未必能上樓」，且調度過多人員可能造成現場混亂。

• 不熟悉系統：內地救援隊並不熟悉香港的建築消防系統及具體的行動指引。

  
  

3. 機制尚未完全對接

• 協定範圍限制：當時粵港澳三方救援行動協定仍處於首階段，主要針對天然災害。對於火警救援的對接工作當時尚未完全兼容，因此未能在該次行動中即時實行。

  
  

事件背景

• 火災規模：大火焚燒超過 43 小時，共造成 65 人死亡（包括一名殉職消防員）及多人失蹤、受傷。

• 內地待命情況：火災期間，深圳市消防局車隊曾在蓮塘口岸集結待命，但需獲香港方面同意並完成審批程序方可過境，最終消防處回覆稱「目前沒有要求支援」。

  
  

目前，大埔宏福苑大火獨立委員會正持續進行聽證，以檢討消防通訊系統、疏散指引及應急聯動機制等問題。 

The following is the conclusion that was reached:

In the case of the Wang Fuk Court fire, the third-largest man-made disaster in Hong Kong's history, two issues are of paramount importance: Two issues are being discussed in this paper: first, the Fire Services Department's (FSD) refusal to accept assistance from the National Fire and Rescue Administration, and second, questions regarding the FSD's regulatory responsibilities. Nevertheless, public criticism and discourse have diminished to a negligible level, remaining persistently passive. It appears that the issue has been delegated exclusively to the so-called "pro-establishment" media and online influencers. This state of stagnation, in and of itself, constitutes a significant problem. Given the paucity of public discourse and the superficial nature of the "debates" that have transpired during the hearings, it is imperative that we, the public, do not allow the media to mislead us. It is essential that we elucidate the key issues.

The Fire Services Department's (FSD) decision not to deploy the National Rescue Brigade is inherently intertwined with its regulatory responsibilities. The latter serves as evidence for the former, and the former serves as evidence for the latter. The dissociation of these two elements would result in a loss of perspective, thereby compromising the ability to understand the broader context. Prior to the decision regarding the request or refusal of assistance from the National Fire Brigade in combating the fire in Tai Po, a long-standing issue of rigid regulatory oversight had already been present throughout. This persistent problem of rigid oversight, in turn, reflects the former issue. The existence of the latter is predicated on the existence of the former.

The following is a list of the three most devastating fire disasters in Hong Kong's history, ranked according to the number of lives lost:

Happy Valley Racecourse Fire (February 26, 1918): 614 Deaths

The most lethal conflagration in Hong Kong's history transpired when a makeshift bamboo grandstand gave way, collapsing onto culinary stalls during a race meeting. The collapse ignited cooking fires that rapidly consumed the flammable structures, trapping thousands of spectators.

On September 22, 1948, a warehouse fire in Hong Kong resulted in 176 fatalities. The conflagration originated from an explosion on the ground floor of the Wing On warehouse, located on Des Voeux Road West. The facility contained "dangerous goods" that fueled an intense blaze, resulting in 176 fatalities and 69 injuries.

On November 26, 2025, a conflagration occurred in the Wang Fuk Court, resulting in 161 fatalities. This incident has been identified as the most lethal building fire in Hong Kong for over 75 years. The conflagration occurred in a residential complex in Tai Po that was undergoing renovations. The conflagration rapidly propagated through highly flammable bamboo scaffolding and safety mesh, encompassing seven residential blocks and resulting in approximately 5,000 individuals becoming homeless.

With respect to the Grade 5 fire at Wang Fuk Court in Tai Po and the subsequent public hearings, the controversy over the Fire Services Department's (FSD) responsibilities is primarily centered on regulatory authority and contractor reporting mechanisms.

A Definition of the Fire Services Department's Responsibilities

According to the latest progress from the public hearings in April 2026:

Ultimate Gatekeeper: FSD Commissioner Yeung Yan-kin acknowledged that the FSD bears "ultimate responsibility" and "final gatekeeping responsibility" for the protection of life and property, as well as for the prevention of fires.

The present study explores the concept of Expanded Enforcement Authority. The Department has shifted from its previous stance of exclusively overseeing fire protection systems. It now acknowledges that it also has enforcement authority over fire hazards such as foam board panels, scaffolding netting, and "open openings" in rear stairwells.

The following section delineates the interdepartmental division of responsibilities. While acknowledging the need for coordination with the Buildings Department regarding structural concerns, the Director firmly asserted that responsibility cannot be evaded merely because these are considered "passive installations."

Reporting Responsibilities of Contractors and Equipment

The hearing revealed issues with fire safety equipment malfunctions prior to the fire.

Reporting Obligations: The Fire Services Department has underscored the responsibility of registered contractors to promptly report any damage to fire safety systems, including malfunctioning alarms and empty water tanks, to the Department.

Criminal Liability: Law enforcement officials have apprehended multiple individuals in relation to the conflagration. Some of these individuals are suspected of providing false assurances to the Fire Services Department regarding the maintenance of operational alarms.

Systemic Reforms: The Fire Services Department has announced its intention to impose heightened penalties for the delayed reporting of fire equipment damage.

The following are the salient facts of the incident:

Scale of the Fire: In November 2025, a fire of Grade 5 intensity rapidly spread to seven buildings, burning for over 43 hours.

The primary factors contributing to the observed failure are as follows: During the maintenance process, water was drained from the fire water tanks, and the main circuit breaker for the fire pumps was deactivated. This resulted in the failure of the fire alarm and automatic sprinkler systems.

The following section will address external factors. The Director of Fire Services has indicated that the delayed implementation of upgrades to the communication system was precipitated by the repercussions of the preceding pandemic and social unrest. This delay has led to a situation in which the system is incapable of efficiently managing a substantial volume of distress calls during a fire event.

In light of the most recent investigative findings and recent hearing developments, it can be concluded that not all matters fall outside the jurisdiction of the Fire Services Department.

While the Fire Services Department initially indicated that the issues in question pertained to property management or contractors, as the investigation progressed, the Commissioner has publicly acknowledged that the department holds statutory responsibilities for supervision and enforcement at multiple levels.

The subsequent section delineates the allocation of responsibilities in greater detail.

1. The Fire Services Department is obligated to assume responsibility in the following areas:

Oversight of system failures: Although maintenance is carried out by contractors such as Hong Tai, the Fire Services Department is responsible for supervising these contractors. The Commissioner acknowledged that in the event that contractors demonstrate a pattern of noncompliance, including, but not limited to, failure to repair equipment for an extended period and failure to report issues truthfully, the Fire Services Department is obligated to conduct proactive inspections and enforce applicable regulations.

The following institution has been designated as the Enforcement Authority with regard to fire hazards: In reference to the prevalence of common fire hazards observed at fire scenes, including foam boards, scaffolding netting, and rear stairwell openings, the Director of the Fire Services Department acknowledged during the April 2026 hearing that these elements are classified as "fire hazards" under the provisions of the Fire Services Ordinance. The Department is vested with direct enforcement authority in this regard.

Communication and Dispatch Responsibilities: The Fire Services Department has been entrusted with the responsibility of overseeing the internal administrative and technical aspects of communication systems during fire events. This includes the management of emergency calls and the facilitation of prompt responses to address the needs of individuals in crisis.

2. The following areas are considered to be under the purview of "Joint Responsibility" in conjunction with other departments:

Building Structural Safety (in conjunction with the Buildings Department): Smoke-proof doors and fire-resistant structures in buildings are classified as "passive fire protection systems." While the primary regulatory authority for these matters is the Buildings Department, the Fire Services Department is nevertheless charged with the responsibility of reporting any issues that come to its attention and recommending improvements upon discovery. It therefore cannot be considered entirely exempt from responsibility.

3. A discussion of the responsibilities of "external third parties" is warranted, given that these entities do not fall under the direct jurisdiction of the Fire Services Department.

Falsifying maintenance reports is a particular concern. In the event that contractors deliberately conceal the shutdown of fire pumps or alarms, resulting in the Fire Services Department receiving false reports, the initial responsibility falls upon the contractors themselves, as well as their integrity and criminal negligence. This has led to the arrest of multiple contractor personnel.

On-site Property Management: The evacuation procedures implemented by property management companies during a fire, as well as the response speed of security guards, fall under civil management responsibilities. These responsibilities do not fall within the Fire Services Department's enforcement jurisdiction.

⚠️ Points of Controversy in Public Opinion and the Court

The most closely watched point of contention currently is as follows: The central question of this inquiry is whether the Fire Services Department missed an opportunity to avert the tragedy due to administrative negligence.

The Position of the Fire Services Department: The contractor's actions, or lack thereof, in disclosing the system failure, are of particular concern.

The Victims'/Judges' Position: The following inquiries are posited: For what reason did the Fire Services Department, in its capacity as the regulatory authority, permit critical fire safety equipment—namely, water tanks and fire alarms—to remain deactivated for an extended period without having any awareness of the circumstances?

In summary, the Fire Services Department is no longer able to evade its responsibilities by asserting that the matter at hand is "merely a matter of private estate maintenance." The prevailing consensus among relevant parties is that contractors are obligated to submit reports; however, the Fire Services Department retains the ultimate responsibility for oversight and enforcement.

Chris Wat's commentary on the Grade 5 fire at Wang Fuk Court in Tai Po was particularly critical, characterizing the incident as a "complete and utter man-made disaster." She repeatedly emphasized the perceived failure of government bureaucracy in her subsequent posts.

The following are the primary points of her commentary:

1. A critique of government departments' tendency to evade responsibility and adopt a "not my problem" attitude

In her latest commentary (April 2026), Chris Wat observed that the hearing exposed the most egregious aspect of government departments—the practice of deflecting responsibility.

Refusal to assume responsibility: During the hearing, she directly criticized the Fire Services Department and other agencies for frequently using the "not within their jurisdiction" excuse.

Power Unused: Citing previous cases, including the 2020 mini-storage fire ruling, she observed that the law has long acknowledged the Fire Services Department's extensive authority to address fire hazards. However, officials often opt to disregard this authority under the guise of "division of labor."

2. The article "No Place to Complain" has prompted citizens to report to "Scoop." The author specifically mentioned that the major renovation issues at Wang Fuk Court had previously been reported by "Scoop."

Government Incompetence: It is her conviction that the phenomenon of citizens gravitating toward Scoop can be interpreted as a systemic failure, encompassing government departments, legislators, and traditional media entities.

Minor Matters Evolving into Significant Concerns: If minor livelihood issues (e.g., illegal foam insulation or damaged fire safety equipment) could be expeditiously resolved through conventional complaint channels, it would be necessary to examine why citizens would need to seek assistance from an entertainment program. This "neglect of small matters" ultimately culminated in a tragedy that claimed hundreds of lives.

3. Bureaucratic Structure and the Phrase "All Is Well"

In her early post-fire article, "First Cure the Rottenness That Attracts Flies," she noted:

Prioritizing Loyalty Over Livelihoods: In recent years, she has been critical of society's prioritization of "political loyalty" and the maintenance of a "positive facade," which she contends has led to a shift in which legislators and the media are increasingly expected to provide applause rather than criticism. This, she argues, has resulted in a loss of their oversight functions.

A Heavy Price Paid: The speaker characterized the conflagration as "a lesson paid for with hundreds of lives," emphasizing that unless the bureaucratic system is fundamentally altered, the slogan of "reforming to prosper" will remain mere rhetoric.

4. As indicated by Chris Wat's repeated citation of a line from the film Cesium Fallout (2024), the following assertion is made: The assertion that man-made disasters are more terrifying than natural disasters is not without merit. . She underscored the notion that "flies don't land on seamless eggs," thereby implying that the government must first address its internal "rot," namely its bureaucratic culture, in order to ensure public safety. It is worthy of note that a controversy ensued following the publication of Chris Wat's article on the Facebook page of the Ta Kung Pao newspaper. It was subsequently revealed that the article had undergone seven edits prior to its ultimate deletion. According to reports, the edits primarily entailed the removal of her direct criticism of government officials for prioritizing loyalty over the people's livelihood. In her subsequent response, she acknowledged the prerogative of the aforementioned parties, yet the original text remains conspicuously present on her personal social media page.

During the conflagration classified as a Category 5, which occurred at Wang Fuk Court in Tai Po on November 26, 2025, the Fire Services Department initially asserted that it had not requested assistance from mainland China during the aforementioned fire. The department subsequently elucidated the technical and operational considerations that informed its decision not to deploy mainland fire crews at the Independent Commission of Inquiry hearing in April 2026.

The following are the detailed justifications provided by the Fire Services Department during the hearing and at the time of the fire:

1. Operational Compatibility and Communication Barriers

Language and Command Differences: Deputy Fire Commissioner Wong Sze-lut has noted that there are discrepancies in the communication protocols employed by firefighters from the two regions. For instance, in the context of a distress signal, such as "Mayday," mainland firefighters might respond with a cry of "Help!" In the context of a noisy environment such as the scene of an emergency, firefighters from Hong Kong might face challenges in immediately recognizing the phrase "Help!" in Mandarin.

The following is a list of equipment that is not compatible with the aforementioned equipment. The fire departments on the mainland and in Hong Kong utilize divergent models of breathing apparatus. The potential incompatibility of mainland teams' equipment with Hong Kong's systems has the potential to compromise safety during joint operations.

2. The allocation of on-site resources and personnel is determined by the on-site saturation level. The hearing revealed that on the day of the fire, there were already approximately 980 firefighters on site (eight times the standard staffing level for a Class 5 fire), and the area was filled with fire trucks. The Fire Services Department hypothesized that, at that time, "even more personnel might not have been able to enter the building," and that dispatching too many personnel could have caused chaos at the scene.

Lack of Familiarity with Systems: It was observed that mainland rescue teams lacked familiarity with Hong Kong's building fire safety systems and the specific operational guidelines that govern them.

3. The present analysis indicates that the mechanisms have not been fully integrated.

The limitations of the agreement are as follows: At that time, the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao trilateral rescue cooperation agreement was still in its nascent phase, with its primary focus being on addressing natural disasters. The coordination mechanisms for fire rescue operations had not yet achieved full compatibility, thus hindering their immediate implementation during this incident.

Incident Background and Fire Scale

The conflagration persisted for a duration exceeding 43 hours, culminating in a total of 65 fatalities, including one firefighter who perished while engaged in active firefighting operations. In addition to these casualties, the incident also resulted in numerous missing and injured individuals.

Mainland Standby Status: During the aforementioned conflagration, a fleet of vehicles from the Shenzhen Fire Department had assembled at the Liantang Port of Entry to stand by, but they required approval from Hong Kong authorities and had to complete the necessary clearance procedures before crossing the border. In their response, the Fire Services Department stated that "there is currently no request for assistance."

Presently, the Independent Commission on the Tai Po Wang Fuk Court Fire is conducting hearings to address issues such as the fire service communication system, evacuation guidelines, and emergency coordination mechanisms.

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